Reflections on the Decline of Science in England, and on Some of Its Causes

Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer

REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND,

AND ON SOME OF ITS CAUSES.

By Charles Babbage

DEDICATION.

HAD I INTENDED TO DEDICATE THIS VOLUME, I SHOULD HAVE INSCRIBED IT TO

A NOBLEMAN WHOSE EXERTIONS IN PROMOTING EVERY OBJECT THAT CAN ADVANCE

SCIENCE REFLECT LUSTRE UPON HIS RANK. BUT THE KINDNESS OF HIS NATURE

MIGHT HAVE BEEN PAINED AT HAVING HIS NAME CONNECTED WITH STRICTURES,

PERHAPS TOO SEVERELY JUST. I SHALL, THEREFORE, ABSTAIN FROM MENTIONING

THE NAME OF ONE WHO WILL FEEL THAT HE HAS COMMANDED MY ESTEEM AND

RESPECT.

C. BABBAGE.

DORSET STREET, MANCHESTER SQUARE, 29th April, 1830.

PREFACE.

Of the causes which have induced me to print this volume I have little

to say; my own opinion is, that it will ultimately do some service

to science, and without that belief I would not have undertaken so

thankless a task. That it is too true not to make enemies, is an opinion

in which I concur with several of my friends, although I should hope

that what I have written will not give just reason for the permanence of

such feelings. On one point I shall speak decidedly, it is not connected

in any degree with the calculating machine on which I have been engaged;

the causes which have led to it have been long operating, and would have

produced this result whether I had ever speculated on that subject, and

whatever might have been the fate of my speculations.

If any one shall endeavour to account for the opinions stated in these

pages by ascribing them to any imagined circumstance peculiar to myself,

I think he will be mistaken. That science has long been neglected and

declining in England, is not an opinion originating with me, but is

shared by many, and has been expressed by higher authority than mine. I

shall offer a few notices on this subject, which, from their scattered

position, are unlikely to have met the reader's attention, and which,

when combined with the facts I have detailed in subsequent pages, will

be admitted to deserve considerable attention. The following extract

from the article Chemistry, in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, is from

the pen of a gentleman equally qualified by his extensive reading, and

from his acquaintance with foreign nations, to form an opinion entitled

to respect. Differing from him widely as to the cause, I may be

permitted to cite him as high authority for the fact.

"In concluding this most circumscribed outline of the History of

Chemistry, we may perhaps be allowed to express a faint shade of regret,

which, nevertheless, has frequently passed over our minds within the

space of the last five or six years. Admiring, as we most sincerely do,

the electro-magnetic discoveries of Professor Oersted and his followers,

we still, as chemists, fear that our science has suffered some degree

of neglect in consequence of them. At least, we remark that, during this

period, good chemical analyses and researches have been rare in England;

and yet, it must be confessed, there is an ample field for chemical

discovery. How scanty is our knowledge of the suspected fluorine! Are

we sure that we understand the nature of nitrogen? And yet these are

amongst our elements. Much has been done by Wollaston, Berzelius,

Guy-Lussac, Thenard, Thomson, Prout, and others, with regard to the

doctrine of definite proportions; but there yet remains the Atomic

Theory. Is it a representation of the laws of nature, or is it

not?"---CHEMISTRY, ENCYC. METROP. p.596.

When the present volume was considerably advanced, the public were

informed that the late Sir Humphry Davy had commenced a work, having the

same title as the present, and that his sentiments were expressed in the

language of feeling and of eloquence. It is to be hoped that it may be

allowed by his friends to convey his opinions to posterity, and that the

writings of the philosopher may enable his contemporaries to forget some

of the deeds of the President of the Royal Society.

Whatever may be the fate of that highly interesting document, we may

infer his opinions upon this subject from a sentiment expressed in his

last work:--

"--But we may in vain search the aristocracy now for

philosophers."----"There are very few persons who pursue science with

true dignity; it is followed more as connected with objects of profit

than those of fame."--SIR H. DAVY'S CONSOLATIONS IN TRAVEL.

The last authority which I shall adduce is more valuable, from the

varied acquirements of its author, and from the greater detail into

which he enters. "We have drawn largely, both in the present Essay, and

in our article on LIGHT, from the ANNALES DE CHEMIE, and we take this

ONLY opportunity distinctly to acknowledge our obligations to that most

admirably conducted work. Unlike the crude and undigested scientific

matter which suffices, (we are ashamed to say it) for the monthly and

quarterly amusement of our own countrymen, whatever is admitted into ITS

pages, has at least been taken pains with, and, with few exceptions, has

sterling merit. Indeed, among the original communications which

abound in it, there are few which would misbecome the first academical

collections; and if any thing could diminish our regret at the long

suppression of those noble memoirs, which are destined to adorn future

volumes of that of the Institute, it would be the masterly abstracts

of them which from time to time appear in the ANNALES, either from the

hands of the authors, or from the reports rendered by the committees

appointed to examine them; which latter, indeed, are universally models

of their kind, and have contributed, perhaps more than any thing, to the

high scientific tone of the French SAVANS. What author, indeed, but

will write his best, when he knows that his work, if it have merit, will

immediately be reported on by a committee, who will enter into all its

meaning; understand it, however profound: and, not content with MERELY

understanding it, pursue the trains of thought to which it leads; place

its discoveries and principles in new and unexpected lights; and bring

the whole of their knowledge of collateral subjects to bear upon it. Nor

ought we to omit our acknowledgement to the very valuable Journals of

Poggendorff and Schweigger. Less exclusively national than their Gallic

compeer, they present a picture of the actual progress of physical

science throughout Europe. Indeed, we have been often astonished to

see with what celerity every thing, even moderately valuable in the

scientific publications of this country, finds its way into their pages.

This ought to encourage our men of science. They have a larger audience,

and a wider sympathy than they are perhaps aware of; and however

disheartening the general diffusion of smatterings of a number of

subjects, and the almost equally general indifference to profound

knowledge in any, among their own countrymen, may be, they may rest

assured that not a fact they may discover, nor a good experiment they

may make, but is instantly repeated, verified, and commented upon, in

Germany, and, we may add too, in Italy. We wish the obligation were

mutual. Here, whole branches of continental discovery are unstudied,

and indeed almost unknown, even by name. It is in vain to conceal the

melancholy truth. We are fast dropping behind. In mathematics we have

long since drawn the rein, and given over a hopeless race. In

chemistry the case is not much better. Who can tell us any thing of the

Sulfo-salts? Who will explain to us the laws of Isomorphism? Nay, who

among us has even verified Thenard's experiments on the oxygenated

acids,--Oersted's and Berzelius's on the radicals of the

earths,--Balard's and Serrulas's on the combinations of Brome,--and a

hundred other splendid trains of research in that fascinating science?

Nor need we stop here. There are, indeed, few sciences which would not

furnish matter for similar remark. The causes are at once obvious and

deep-seated; but this is not the place to discuss them."--MR. HERSCHEL'S

TREATISE ON SOUND, printed in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA METROPOLITANA.

With such authorities, I need not apprehend much doubt as to the fact of

the decline of science in England: how far I may have pointed out some

of its causes, must be left to others to decide.

Many attacks have lately been made on the conduct of various scientific

bodies, and of their officers, and severe criticism has been lavished

upon some of their productions. Newspapers, Magazines, Reviews, and

Pamphlets, have all been put in requisition for the purpose. Odium has

been cast upon some of these for being anonymous. If a fact is to be

established by testimony, anonymous assertion is of no value; if it

can be proved, by evidence to which the public have access, it is of

no consequence (for the cause of truth) who produces it. A matter of

opinion derives weight from the name which is attached to it; but a

chain of reasoning is equally conclusive, whoever may be its author.

Perhaps it would be better for science, that all criticism should be

avowed. It would certainly have the effect of rendering it more matured,

and less severe; but, on the other hand, it would have the evil of

frequently repressing it altogether, because there exists amongst the

lower ranks of science, a "GENUS IRRITABILE," who are disposed to argue

that every criticism is personal. It is clearly the interest of all who

fear inquiries, to push this principle as far as possible, whilst those

whose sole object is truth, can have no apprehensions from the severest

scrutiny. There are few circumstances which so strongly distinguish the

philosopher, as the calmness with which he can reply to criticisms he

may think undeservedly severe. I have been led into these reflections,

from the circumstance of its having been stated publicly, that I was

the author of several of those anonymous writings, which were considered

amongst the most severe; and the assertion was the more likely to be

credited, from the fact of my having spoken a few words connected with

one of those subjects at the last anniversary of the Royal Society.

[I merely observed that the agreement made with the British Museum for

exchanging the Arundel MSS. for their duplicates, (which had just been

stated by the President,) was UNWISE;--because it was not to be expected

that many duplicates should be found in a library like that of the

Museum, weak in the physical and mathematical sciences: that it was

IMPROVIDENT and UNBUSINESSLIKE;--because it neither fixed the TIME

when the difference was to be paid, in case their duplicates should be

insufficient; nor did it appear that there were any FUNDS out of

which the money could be procured: and I added, that it would be more

advantageous to sell the MSS., and purchase the books we wanted with the

produce.] I had hoped in that diminutive world, the world of science, my

character had been sufficiently known to have escaped being the subject

of such a mistake; and, in taking this opportunity of correcting it, I

will add that, in the present volume, I have thought it more candid to

mention distinctly those whose line of conduct I have disapproved, or

whose works I have criticised, than to leave to the reader inferences

which he might make far more extensive than I have intended. I hope,

therefore, that where I have depicted species, no person will be so

unkind to others and unjust to me, as to suppose I have described

individuals.

With respect to the cry against personality, which has been lately set

up to prevent all inquiry into matters of scientific misgovernment, a

few words will suffice.

I feel as strongly as any one, not merely the impropriety, but the

injustice of introducing private character into such discussions. There

is, however, a maxim too well established to need any comment of mine.

The public character of every public servant is legitimate subject

of discussion, and his fitness or unfitness for office may be fairly

canvassed by any person. Those whose too sensitive feelings shrink from

such an ordeal, have no right to accept the emoluments of office, for

they know that it is the condition to which all must submit who are paid

from the public purse.

The same principle is equally applicable to Companies, to Societies, and

to Academies. Those from whose pocket the salary is drawn, and by whose

appointment the officer was made, have always a right to discuss the

merits of their officers, and their modes of exercising the duties they

are paid to perform.

This principle is equally applicable to the conduct of a Secretary of

State, or to that of a constable; to that of a Secretary of the Royal

Society, or of an adviser to the Admiralty.

With respect to honorary officers, the case is in some measure

different. But the President of a society, although not recompensed by

any pecuniary remuneration, enjoys a station, when the body over which

he presides possesses a high character, to which many will aspire, who

will esteem themselves amply repaid for the time they devote to the

office, by the consequence attached to it in public estimation. He,

therefore, is answerable to the Society for his conduct in their chair.

There are several societies in which the secretaries, and other

officers, have very laborious duties, and where they are unaided by a

train of clerks, and yet no pecuniary remuneration is given to them.

Science is much indebted to such men, by whose quiet and unostentatious

labours the routine of its institutions is carried on. It would be

unwise, as well as ungrateful, to judge severely of the inadvertencies,

or even of the negligence of such persons: nothing but weighty causes

should justify such a course.

Whilst, however, I contend for the principle of discussion and inquiry

in its widest sense, because I consider it equally the safeguard of our

scientific as of our political institutions, I shall use it, I hope,

temperately; and having no personal feelings myself, but living in terms

of intercourse with almost all, and of intimacy with several of those

from whom I most widely differ, I shall not attempt to heap together

all the causes of complaint; but, by selecting a few in different

departments, endeavour to convince them that some alteration is

essentially necessary for the promotion of that very object which we

both by such different roads pursue.

I have found it necessary, in the course of this volume, to speak of the

departed; for the misgovernment of the Royal Society has not been

wholly the result of even the present race. It is said, and I think with

justice, in the life of Young, inserted amongst Dr. Johnson's, that the

famous maxim, "DE MORTUIS NIL NISI BONUM," "appears to savour more of

female weakness than of manly reason." The foibles and the follies of

those who are gone, may, without injury to society, repose in oblivion.

But, whoever would claim the admiration of mankind for their good

actions, must prove his impartiality by fearlessly condemning their evil

deeds. Adopt the maxim, and praise to the dead becomes worthless, from

its universality; and history, a greater fable than it has been hitherto

deemed.

Perhaps I ought to apologize for the large space I have devoted to the

Royal Society. Certainly its present state gives it no claim to that

attention; and I do it partly from respect for its former services,

and partly from the hope that, if such an Institution can be of use to

science in the present day, the attention of its members may be excited

to take steps for its restoration. Perhaps I may be blamed for having

published extracts from the minutes of its proceedings without the

permission of its Council. To have asked permission of the present

Council would have been useless. I might, however, have given the

substance of what I have extracted without the words, and no one could

then have reproached me with any infringement of our rules: but

there were two objections to that course. In the first place, it is

impossible, even for the most candid, in all cases, to convey precisely

the same sentiment in different language; and I thought it therefore

more fair towards those from whom I differed, as well as to the public,

to give the precise words. Again: had it been possible to make so

accurate a paraphrase, I should yet have preferred the risk of incurring

the reproach of the Royal Society for the offence, to escaping their

censure by an evasion. What I have done rests on my own head; and I

shrink not from the responsibility attaching to it.

If those, whose mismanagement of that Society I condemn, should accuse

me of hostility to the Royal Society; my answer is, that the party which

governs it is not the Royal Society; and that I will only admit the

justice of the accusation, when the whole body, becoming acquainted

with the system I have exposed, shall, by ratifying it with their

approbation, appropriate it to themselves: an event of which I need

scarcely add I have not the slightest anticipation.

CONTENTS.

PREFACE

Introductory Remarks

CHAP. I. On the Reciprocal Influence of Science and Education.

CHAP. II. Of the Inducements to Individuals to cultivate Science.

--Sect. 1. Professional Impulses.

------ 2. Of National Encouragement.

------ 3. Of Encouragement from learned Societies.

CHAP. III. General State of learned Societies in England.

CHAP. IV. State of the Royal Society in particular.

--Sect. 1. Mode of becoming a Fellow of the Royal Society.

------ 2. Of the Presidency and Vice-Presidencies.

------ 3. Of the Secretariships

------ 4. Of the Scientific Advisers.

------ 5. Of the Union of several Offices in one person.

------ 6. Of the Funds of the Society.

------ 7. Of the Royal Medals.

------ 8. Of the Copley Medals.

------ 9. Of the Fairchild Lecture.

------ 10. Of the Croonian Lecture.

------ 11. Of the Causes of the Present State of the Royal Society.

------ 12. Of the Plan for Reforming the Society.

CHAP. V. Of Observations.

--Sect. 1. Of Minute Precision.

------ 2. On the Art of Observing.

------ 3. On the Frauds of Observers.

CHAP. VI. Suggestions for the Advancement of Science in England.

--Sect. 1. Of the Necessity that Members of the Royal Society

--------- should express their Opinions.

------ 2. Of Biennial Presidents.

------ 3. Of the Influence of the Colleges of Physicians and

--------- Surgeons in the Royal Society.

------ 4. Of the Influence of the Royal Institution on the Royal

--------- Society.

------ 5. Of the Transactions of the Royal Society.

------ 6. Order of Merit.

------ 7. Of the Union of Scientific Societies.

CONCLUSION.

APPENDIX NO. 1.

------- NO. 2.

------- NO. 3.

REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, AND ON SOME OF ITS

CAUSES.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

It cannot have escaped the attention of those, whose acquirements enable

them to judge, and who have had opportunities of examining the state of

science in other countries, that in England, particularly with respect

to the more difficult and abstract sciences, we are much below other

nations, not merely of equal rank, but below several even of inferior

power. That a country, eminently distinguished for its mechanical

and manufacturing ingenuity, should be indifferent to the progress of

inquiries which form the highest departments of that knowledge on whose

more elementary truths its wealth and rank depend, is a fact which is

well deserving the attention of those who shall inquire into the causes

that influence the progress of nations.

To trace the gradual decline of mathematical, and with it of the highest

departments of physical science, from the days of Newton to the present,

must be left to the historian. It is not within the province of one who,

having mixed sufficiently with scientific society in England to see

and regret the weakness of some of its greatest ornaments, and to see

through and deplore the conduct of its pretended friends, offers these

remarks, with the hope that they may excite discussion,--with the

conviction that discussion is the firmest ally of truth,--and with the

confidence that nothing but the full expression of public opinion can

remove the evils that chill the enthusiasm, and cramp the energies of

the science of England.

The causes which have produced, and some of the effects which have

resulted from, the present state of science in England, are so mixed,

that it is difficult to distinguish accurately between them. I shall,

therefore, in this volume, not attempt any minute discrimination,

but rather present the result of my reflections on the concomitant

circumstances which have attended the decay, and at the conclusion of

it, shall examine some of the suggestions which have been offered for

the advancement of British science.

CHAPTER I. ON THE RECIPROCAL INFLUENCE OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION.

That the state of knowledge in any country will exert a directive

influence on the general system of instruction adopted in it, is a

principle too obvious to require investigation. And it is equally

certain that the tastes and pursuits of our manhood will bear on them

the traces of the earlier impressions of our education. It is therefore

not unreasonable to suppose that some portion of the neglect of science

in England, may be attributed to the system of education we pursue. A

young man passes from our public schools to the universities, ignorant

almost of the elements of every branch of useful knowledge; and at these

latter establishments, formed originally for instructing those who

are intended for the clerical profession, classical and mathematical

pursuits are nearly the sole objects proposed to the student's ambition.

Much has been done at one of our universities during the last fifteen

years, to improve the system of study; and I am confident that there

is no one connected with that body, who will not do me the justice to

believe that, whatever suggestions I may venture to offer, are prompted

by the warmest feelings for the honour and the increasing prosperity of

its institutions. The ties which connect me with Cambridge are indeed of

no ordinary kind.

Taking it then for granted that our system of academical education ought

to be adapted to nearly the whole of the aristocracy of the country, I

am inclined to believe that whilst the modifications I should propose

would not be great innovations on the spirit of our institutions, they

would contribute materially to that important object.

It will be readily admitted, that a degree conferred by an university,

ought to be a pledge to the public that he who holds it possesses a

certain quantity of knowledge. The progress of society has rendered

knowledge far more various in its kinds than it used to be; and to meet

this variety in the tastes and inclinations of those who come to us for

instruction, we have, besides the regular lectures to which all must

attend, other sources of information from whence the students may

acquire sound and varied knowledge in the numerous lectures on

chemistry, geology, botany, history, &c. It is at present a matter of

option with the student, which, and how many of these courses he shall

attend, and such it should still remain. All that it would be necessary

to add would be, that previously to taking his degree, each person

should be examined by those Professors, whose lectures he had attended.

The pupils should then be arranged in two classes, according to their

merits, and the names included in these classes should be printed. I

would then propose that no young man, except his name was found amongst

the "List of Honours," should be allowed to take his degree, unless he

had been placed in the first class of some one at least of the courses

given by the professors. But it should still be imperative upon the

student to possess such mathematical knowledge as we usually require. If

he had attained the first rank in several of these examinations, it

is obvious that we should run no hazard in a little relaxing the

strictness of his mathematical trial.

If it should be thought preferable, the sciences might be grouped, and

the following subjects be taken together:--

Modern History.

Laws of England.

Civil Law.

Political Economy.

Applications of Science to Arts and Manufactures.

Chemistry.

Mineralogy.

Geology.

Zoology, including Physiology and Comparative Anatomy.

Botany, including Vegetable Physiology and Anatomy.

One of the great advantages of such a system would be, that no young

person would have an excuse for not studying, by stating, as is most

frequently done, that the only pursuits followed at Cambridge, classics

and mathematics, are not adapted either to his taste, or to the wants of

his after life. His friends and relatives would then reasonably expect

every student to have acquired distinction in SOME pursuit. If it should

be feared that this plan would lead to too great a diversity of pursuits

in the same individual, a limitation might be placed upon the number of

examinations into which the same person might be permitted to enter. It

might also be desirable not to restrict the whole of these examinations

to the third year, but to allow the student to enter on some portion of

them in the first or second year, if he should prefer it.

By such an arrangement, which would scarcely interfere seriously with

our other examinations, we should, I think, be enabled effectually to

keep pace with the wants of society, and retaining fully our power

and our right to direct the studies of those who are intended for the

church, as well as of those who aspire to the various offices connected

with our academical institutions; we should, at the same time, open

a field of honourable ambition to multitudes, who, from the exclusive

nature of our present studies, leave us with but a very limited addition

to their stock of knowledge.

Much more might be said on a subject so important to the interests of

the country, as well as of our university, but my wish is merely to open

it for our own consideration and discussion. We have already done so

much for the improvement of our system of instruction, that public

opinion will not reproach us for any unwillingness to alter. It is our

first duty to be well satisfied that we can improve: such alterations

ought only to be the result of a most mature consideration, and of a

free interchange of sentiments on the subject, in order that we may

condense upon the question the accumulated judgment of many minds.

It is in some measure to be attributed to the defects of our system of

education, that scientific knowledge scarcely exists amongst the

higher classes of society. The discussions in the Houses of Lords or of

Commons, which arise on the occurrence of any subjects connected with

science, sufficiently prove this fact, which, if I had consulted the

extremely limited nature of my personal experience, I should, perhaps,

have doubted.

CHAPTER II. OF THE INDUCEMENTS TO INDIVIDUALS TO CULTIVATE SCIENCE.

Interest or inclination form the primary and ruling motives in this

matter: and both these exert greater or less proportionate influence in

each of the respective cases to be examined.

SECTION 1. PROFESSIONAL IMPULSES.

A large portion of those who are impelled by ambition or necessity to

advance themselves in the world, make choice of some profession in which

they imagine their talents likely to be rewarded with success; and there

are peculiar advantages resulting to each from this classification of

society into professions. The ESPRIT DE CORPS frequently overpowers the

jealousy which exists between individuals, and pushes on to advantageous

situations some of the more fortunate of the profession; whilst, on the

other hand, any injury or insult offered to the weakest, is redressed or

resented by the whole body. There are other advantages which are perhaps

of more importance to the public. The numbers which compose the learned

professions in England are so considerable, that a kind of public

opinion is generated amongst them, which powerfully tends to repress

conduct that is injurious either to the profession or to the public.

Again, the mutual jealousy and rivalry excited amongst the whole body

is so considerable, that although the rank and estimation which an

individual holds in the profession may be most unfairly appreciated,

by taking the opinion of his rival; yet few estimations will be found

generally more correct than the opinion of a whole profession on the

merits of any one of its body. This test is of great value to the

public, and becomes the more so, in proportion to the difficulty of the

study to which the profession is devoted. It is by availing themselves

of it that men of sense and judgment, who have occasion for the services

of professional persons, are, in a great measure, guided in their

choice.

The pursuit of science does not, in England, constitute a distinct

profession, as it does in many other countries. It is therefore, on

that ground alone, deprived of many of the advantages which attach

to professions. One of its greatest misfortunes arises from this

circumstance; for the subjects on which it is conversant are so

difficult, and require such unremitted devotion of time, that few who

have not spent years in their study can judge of the relative knowledge

of those who pursue them. It follows, therefore, that the public, and

even that men of sound sense and discernment, can scarcely find means

to distinguish between the possessors of knowledge, in the present

day, merely elementary, and those whose acquirements are of the highest

order. This remark applies with peculiar force to all the more difficult

applications of mathematics; and the fact is calculated to check the

energies of those who only look to reputation in England.

As there exists with us no peculiar class professedly devoted to

science, it frequently happens that when a situation, requiring for the

proper fulfilment of its duties considerable scientific attainments, is

vacant, it becomes necessary to select from among amateurs, or rather

from among persons whose chief attention has been bestowed on other

subjects, and to whom science has been only an occasional pursuit.

A certain quantity of scientific knowledge is of course possessed by

individuals in many professions; and when added to the professional

acquirements of the army, the navy, or to the knowledge of the merchant,

is highly meritorious: but it is obvious that this may become, when

separated from the profession, quite insignificant as the basis of a

scientific reputation.

To those who have chosen the profession of medicine, a knowledge of

chemistry, and of some branches of natural history, and, indeed, of

several other departments of science, affords useful assistance. Some of

the most valuable names which adorn the history of English science have

been connected with this profession.

The causes which induce the selection of the clerical profession are

not often connected with science; and it is, perhaps, a question of

considerable doubt whether it is desirable to hold out to its members

hopes of advancement from such acquirements. As a source of recreation,

nothing can be more fit to occupy the attention of a divine; and our

church may boast, in the present as in past times, that the domain of

science has been extended by some of its brightest ornaments.

In England, the profession of the law is that which seems to hold out

the strongest attraction to talent, from the circumstance, that in it

ability, coupled with exertion, even though unaided by patronage, cannot

fail of obtaining reward. It is frequently chosen as an introduction

to public life. It also presents great advantages, from its being a

qualification for many situations more or less remotely connected

with it, as well as from the circumstance that several of the highest

officers of the state must necessarily have sprung from its ranks.

A powerful attraction exists, therefore, to the promotion of a study and

of duties of all others engrossing the time most completely, and which

is less benefited than most others by any acquaintance with science.

This is one amongst the causes why it so very rarely happens that men in

public situations are at all conversant even with the commonest branches

of scientific knowledge, and why scarcely an instance can be cited of

such persons acquiring a reputation by any discoveries of their own.

But, however consistent other sciences may be with professional

avocations, there is one which, from its extreme difficulty, and the

overwhelming attention which it demands, can only be pursued with

success by those whose leisure is undisturbed by other claims. To be

well acquainted with the present state of mathematics, is no easy task;

but to add to the powers which that science possesses, is likely to be

the lot of but few English philosophers.

SECTION 2. OF NATIONAL ENCOURAGEMENT.

The little encouragement which at all previous periods has been afforded

by the English Government to the authors of useful discoveries, or of

new and valuable inventions, is justified on the following grounds:

1. The public, who consume the new commodity or profit by the new

invention, are much better judges of its merit than the government can

be.

2. The reward which arises from the sale of the commodity is usually

much larger than that which government would be justified in bestowing;

and it is exactly proportioned to the consumption, that is, to the want

which the public feel for the new article.

It must be admitted that, as general principles, these are correct:

there are, however, exceptions which flow necessarily from the very

reasoning from which they were deduced. Without entering minutely into

these exceptions, it will be sufficient to show that all abstract truth

is entirely excluded from reward under this system. It is only the

application of principles to common life which can be thus rewarded.

A few instances may perhaps render this position more evident. The

principle of the hydrostatic paradox was known as a speculative truth

in the time of Stevinus; [About the year 1600] and its application to

raising heavy weights has long been stated in elementary treatises on

natural philosophy, as well as constantly exhibited in lectures. Yet, it

may fairly be regarded as a mere abstract principle, until the late Mr.

Bramah, by substituting a pump instead of the smaller column, converted

it into a most valuable and powerful engine.--The principle of the

convertibility of the centres of oscillation and suspension in the

pendulum, discovered by Huygens more than a century and a half ago,

remained, until within these few years, a sterile, though most elegant

proposition; when, after being hinted at by Prony, and distinctly

pointed out by Bonenberger, it was employed by Captain Kater as the

foundation of a most convenient practical method of determining the

length of the pendulum.--The interval which separated the discovery, by

Dr. Black, of latent heat, from the beautiful and successful application

of it to the steam engine, was comparatively short; but it required the

efforts of two minds; and both were of the highest order.--The influence

of electricity in producing decompositions, although of inestimable

value as an instrument of discovery in chemical inquiries, can hardly be

said to have been applied to the practical purposes of life, until the

same powerful genius which detected the principle, applied it, by

a singular felicity of reasoning, to arrest the corrosion of the

copper-sheathing of vessels. That admirably connected chain of

reasoning, the truth of which is confirmed by its very failure as a

remedy, will probably at some future day supply, by its successful

application, a new proof of the position we are endeavouring to

establish.

[I am authorised in stating, that this was regarded by Laplace as the

greatest of Sir Humphry Davy's discoveries. It did not fail in producing

the effect foreseen by Sir H. Davy,--the preventing the corrosion of

the copper; but it failed as a cure of the evil, by producing one of an

OPPOSITE character; either by preserving too perfectly from decay the

surface of the copper, or by rendering it negative, it allowed marine

animals and vegetables to accumulate on its surface, and thus impede the

progress of the vessel.]

Other instances might, if necessary, be adduced, to show that long

intervals frequently elapse between the discovery of new principles

in science and their practical application: nor ought this at all to

surprise us. Those intellectual qualifications, which give birth to new

principles or to new methods, are of quite a different order from those

which are necessary for their practical application.

At the time of the discovery of the beautiful theorem of Huygens,

it required in its author not merely a complete knowledge of the

mathematical science of his age, but a genius to enlarge its boundaries

by new creations of his own. Such talents are not always united with a

quick perception of the details, and of the practical applications

of the principles they have developed, nor is it for the interest of

mankind that minds of this high order should lavish their powers on

subjects unsuited to their grasp.

In mathematical science, more than in all others, it happens that truths

which are at one period the most abstract, and apparently the most

remote from all useful application, become in the next age the bases

of profound physical inquiries, and in the succeeding one, perhaps, by

proper simplification and reduction to tables, furnish their ready and

daily aid to the artist and the sailor.

It may also happen that at the time of the discovery of such principles,

the mechanical arts may be too imperfect to render their application

likely to be attended with success. Such was the case with the principle

of the hydrostatic paradox; and it was not, I believe, until the

expiration of Mr. Bramah's patent, that the press which bears his

name received that mechanical perfection in its execution, which has

deservedly brought it into such general use.

On the other hand, for one person who is blessed with the power of

invention, many will always be found who have the capacity of applying

principles; and much of the merit ascribed to these applications will

always depend on the care and labour bestowed in the practical detail.

If, therefore, it is important to the country that abstract principles

should be applied to practical use, it is clear that it is also

important that encouragement should be held out to the few who

are capable of adding to the number of those truths on which such

applications are founded. Unless there exist peculiar institutions

for the support of such inquirers, or unless the Government directly

interfere, the contriver of a thaumatrope may derive profit from his

ingenuity, whilst he who unravels the laws of light and vision, on which

multitudes of phenomena depend, shall descend unrewarded to the tomb.

Perhaps it may be urged, that sufficient encouragement is already

afforded to abstract science in our different universities, by the

professorships established at them. It is not however in the power of

such institutions to create; they may foster and aid the development of

genius; and, when rightly applied, such stations ought to be its fair

and honourable rewards. In many instances their emolument is small; and

when otherwise, the lectures which are required from the professor are

not perhaps in all cases the best mode of employing the energies of

those who are capable of inventing.

I cannot resist the opportunity of supporting these opinions by the

authority of one of the greatest philosophers of a past age, and of

expressing my acknowledgments to the author of a most interesting piece

of scientific biography. In the correspondence which terminated in the

return of Galileo to a professorship in his native country, he remarks,

"But, because my private lectures and domestic pupils are a great

hinderance and interruption of my studies, I wish to live entirely

exempt from the former, and in great measure from the latter."--LIFE

OF GALILEO, p.18. And, in another letter to Kepler, he speaks with

gratitude of Cosmo, the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who "has now invited me

to attach myself to him with the annual salary of 1000 florins, and with

the title of Philosopher and principal Mathematician to his Highness,

without the duties of any office to perform, but with most complete

leisure; so that I can complete my treatise on Mechanics, &c."--p.31.

[Life of Galileo, published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful

Knowledge.]

Surely, if knowledge is valuable, it can never be good policy in a

country far wealthier than Tuscany, to allow a genius like Mr. Dalton's,

to be employed in the drudgery of elementary instruction. [I utter these

sentiments from no feelings of private friendship to that estimable

philosopher, to whom it is my regret to be almost unknown, and whose

modest and retiring merit, I may, perhaps, have the misfortune to offend

by these remarks. But Mr. Dalton was of no party; had he ever moved in

that vortex which has brought discredit, and almost ruin, on the Royal

Society of England;--had he taken part with those who vote to each other

medals, and, affecting to be tired of the fatigues of office, make to

each other requisitions to retain places they would be most reluctant

to quit; his great and splendid discovery would long since have been

represented to government. Expectant mediocrity would have urged on his

claims to remuneration, and those who covered their selfish purposes

with the cloak of science, would have hastened to shelter themselves in

the mantle of his glory.--But the philosopher may find consolation for

the tardy approbation of that Society, in the applause of Europe. If

he was insulted by their medal, he escaped the pain of seeing his name

connected with their proceedings.] Where would have been the military

renown of England, if, with an equally improvident waste of mental

power, its institutions had forced the Duke of Wellington to employ his

life in drilling recruits, instead of planning campaigns?

If we look at the fact, we shall find that the great inventions of the

age are not, with us at least, always produced in universities. The

doctrines of "definite proportions," and of the "chemical agency of

electricity,"--principles of a high order, which have immortalized the

names of their discoverers,--were not produced by the meditations of

the cloister: nor is it in the least a reproach to those valuable

institutions to mention truths like these. Fortunate circumstances must

concur, even to the greatest, to render them eminently successful. It is

not permitted to all to be born, like Archimedes, when a science was to

be created; nor, like Newton, to find the system of the world "without

form and void;" and, by disclosing gravitation, to shed throughout that

system the same irresistible radiance as that with which the Almighty

Creator had illumined its material substance. It can happen to but few

philosophers, and but at distant intervals, to snatch a science, like

Dalton, from the chaos of indefinite combination, and binding it in the

chains of number, to exalt it to rank amongst the exact. Triumphs like

these are necessarily "few and far between;" nor can it be expected that

that portion of encouragement, which a country may think fit to bestow

on science, should be adapted to meet such instances. Too extraordinary

to be frequent, they must be left, if they are to be encouraged at all,

to some direct interference of the government.

The dangers to be apprehended from such a specific interference, would

arise from one, or several, of the following circumstances:--That class

of society, from whom the government is selected, might not possess

sufficient knowledge either to judge themselves, or know upon whose

judgment to rely. Or the number of persons devoting themselves to

science, might not be sufficiently large to have due weight in the

expression of public opinion. Or, supposing this class to be large, it

might not enjoy, in the estimation of the world, a sufficiently high

character for independence. Should these causes concur in any country,

it might become highly injurious to commit the encouragement of science

to any department of the government. This reasoning does not appear to

have escaped the penetration of those who advised the abolition of the

late Board of Longitude.

The question whether it is good policy in the government of a country

to encourage science, is one of which those who cultivate it are not

perhaps the most unbiased judges. In England, those who have hitherto

pursued science, have in general no very reasonable grounds of

complaint; they knew, or should have known, that there was no demand for

it, that it led to little honour, and to less profit.

That blame has been attributed to the government for not fostering

the science of the country is certain; and, as far as regards past

administrations, is, to a great extent, just; with respect to the

present ministers, whose strength essentially depends on public opinion,

it is not necessary that they should precede, and they cannot remain

long insensible to any expression of the general feeling. But supposing

science were thought of some importance by any administration, it would

be difficult in the present state of things to do much in its favour;

because, on the one hand, the higher classes in general have not a

profound knowledge of science, and, on the other, those persons whom

they have usually consulted, seem not to have given such advice as to

deserve the confidence of government. It seems to be forgotten, that the

money allotted by government to purposes of science ought to be expended

with the same regard to prudence and economy as in the disposal of money

in the affairs of private life.

[Who, for instance, could have advised the government to incur the

expense of printing SEVEN HUNDRED AND FIFTY copies of the Astronomical

Observations made at Paramatta, to form a third part of the

Philosophical Transactions for 1829, whilst of the Observations made at

the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, two hundred and fifty copies only

are printed?

Of these seven hundred and fifty copies, seven hundred and ten will be

distributed to members of the Royal Society, to six hundred of whom they

will probably be wholly uninteresting or useless; and thus the country

incurs a constantly recurring annual expense. Nor is it easy to see

on what principle a similar destination could be refused for the

observations made at the Cape of Good Hope.]

To those who measure the question of the national encouragement of

science by its value in pounds, shillings, and pence, I will here state

a fact, which, although pretty generally known, still, I think, deserves

attention. A short time since it was discovered by government that the

terms on which annuities had been granted by them were erroneous, and

new tables were introduced by act of Parliament. It was stated at the

time that the erroneous tables had caused a loss to the country of

between two and three millions sterling. The fact of the sale of

those annuities being a losing concern was long known to many; and the

government appear to have been the last to be informed on the subject.

Half the interest of half that loss, judiciously applied to the

encouragement of mathematical science, would, in a few years, have

rendered utterly impossible such expensive errors.

To those who bow to the authority of great names, one remark may have

its weight. The MECANIQUE COELESTE, [The first volume of the first

translation of this celebrated work into our own language, has just

arrived in England from--America.] and the THEORIE ANALYTIQUE DES

PROBABILITES, were both dedicated, by Laplace, to Napoleon. During the

reign of that extraordinary man, the triumphs of France were as eminent

in Science as they were splendid in arms. May the institutions which

trained and rewarded her philosophers be permanent as the benefits they

have conferred upon mankind!

In other countries it has been found, and is admitted, that a knowledge

of science is a recommendation to public appointments, and that a man

does not make a worse ambassador because he has directed an observatory,

or has added by his discoveries to the extent of our knowledge of

animated nature. Instances even are not wanting of ministers who have

begun their career in the inquiries of pure analysis. As such examples

are perhaps more frequent than is generally imagined, it may be useful

to mention a few of those men of science who have formerly held, or who

now hold, high official stations in the governments of their respective

countries.

Country. Name. Department of Public Office.

Science.

France.. Marquis Laplace(1) Mathematics President of the

Conservative

Senate.

France.. M.Carnot Mathematics Minister of War.

France.. Count Chaptal(2) Chemistry Minister of the

Interior.

France.. Baron Cuvier(3) Comparative Minister of

Anatomy, Public

History Instruction

Prussia.. Baron Humboldt Oriental Ambassador

Languages to England

Prussia.. Baron Alexander The celebrated Chamberlain to

Humboldt Traveller the King of

Prussia

Modena. Marquis Rangoni(4) Mathematics Minister of

Finance and

of Public

Instruction,

President of

Italian Academy

of Forty.

Tuscany. Count Fossombroni Mathematics Prime Minister

(5) of the Grand Duke

of Tuscany.

Saxony.. M. Lindenau(6) Astronomy Ambassador.

(1) Author of the MECANIQUE COELESTE.

(2) Author of TRAITE DE CHIMIE APPLIQUE AUX ARTS.

(3) Author of LECONS D'ANATOMIE COMPAREE--RECHERCHES SUR OSSEMENS

FOSSILES &c. &c.

(4) Author of MEMORIA SULLE FUNZIONI GENERATRICI, Modena, 1824,

and of various other memoirs on mathematical subjects.

(5) Author of several memoirs on mechanics and hydraulics, in the

Transactions of the Academy of Forty.

(6) Author of TABLES BAROMETRIQUES, Gotha, 1809--TABULAE VENERIS,

NOVAE ET CORRECTAE, Gothae, 1810--INVESTIGATIO NOVA ORBITAE A

MERCURIO CIRCA SOLEM DESCRIPTAE, Gothae, 1813, and of other

works.

M. Lindenau, the Minister from the King of Saxony to the King of the

Netherlands, commenced his career as astronomer at the observatory of

the Grand Duke of Gotha, by whom he was sent as his representative at

the German Diet. On the death of the late reigning Duke, M. Lindenau

was invited to Dresden, and filled the same situation under the King of

Saxony; after which he was appointed his minister at the court of the

King of the Netherlands. Such occurrences are not to be paralleled in

our own country, at least not in modern times. Newton was, it is true,

more than a century since, appointed Master of the Mint; but let any

person suggest an appointment of a similar kind in the present day, and

he will gather from the smiles of those to whom he proposes it that the

highest knowledge conduces nothing to success, and that political power

is almost the only recommendation.

SECTION 3. Of Encouragement from Learned Societies.

There are several circumstances which concur in inducing persons

pursuing science, to unite together, to form societies or academies. In

former times, when philosophical instruments were more rare, and the art

of making experiments was less perfectly known, it was almost necessary.

More recently, whilst numerous additions are constantly making to

science, it has been found that those who are most capable of extending

human knowledge, are frequently least able to encounter the expense of

printing their investigations. It is therefore convenient, that some

means should be devised for relieving them from this difficulty, and the

volumes of the transactions of academies have accomplished the desired

end.

There is, however, another purpose to which academies contribute.

When they consist of a limited number of persons, eminent for their

knowledge, it becomes an object of ambition to be admitted on their

list. Thus a stimulus is applied to all those who cultivate science,

which urges on their exertions, in order to acquire the wished-for

distinction. It is clear that this envied position will be valued

in proportion to the difficulty of its attainment, and also to the

celebrity of those who enjoy it; and whenever the standard of scientific

knowledge which qualifies for its ranks is lowered, the value of the

distinction itself will be diminished. If, at any time, a multitude of

persons having no sort of knowledge of science are admitted, it must

cease to be sought after as an object of ambition by men of science, and

the class of persons to whom it will become an object of desire will be

less intellectual.

Let us now compare the numbers composing some of the various academies

of Europe.-The Royal Society of London, the Institute of France, the

Italian Academy of Forty, and the Royal Academy of Berlin, are amongst

the most distinguished.

Name Number of Number

Population. Members of

Country. of its Foreign

Academy. Members

1. England. 22,299,000 685 50

2. France. 32,058,000 76 8 Mem. 100 Corr.

8. Prussia. 12,915,000 38 16

4. Italy.. 12,000,000 40 8

It appears then, that in France, one person out of 427,000 is a member

of the Institute. That in Italy and Prussia, about one out of 300,000

persons is a member of their Academies. That in England, every 32,000

inhabitants produces a Fellow of the Royal Society. Looking merely at

these proportions, the estimation of a seat in the Academy of Berlin,

must be more than nine times as valuable as a similar situation in

England; and a member of the Institute of France will be more than

thirteen times more rare in his country than a Fellow of the Royal

Society is in England.

Favourable as this view is to the dignity of such situations in other

countries, their comparative rarity is by no means the most striking

difference in the circumstances of men of science. If we look at the

station in society occupied by the SAVANS of other countries, in several

of them we shall find it high, and their situations profitable. Perhaps,

at the present moment, Prussia is, of all the countries in Europe, that

which bestows the greatest attention, and most unwearied encouragement

on science. Great as are the merits of many of its philosophers, much of

this support arises from the character of the reigning family, by whose

enlightened policy even the most abstract sciences are fostered.

The maxim that "knowledge is power," can be perfectly comprehended

by those only who are themselves well versed in science; and to the

circumstance of the younger branches of the royal family of Prussia

having acquired considerable knowledge in such subjects, we may

attribute the great force with which that maxim is appreciated.

In France, the situation of its SAVANS is highly respectable, as well as

profitable. If we analyze the list of the Institute, we shall find few

who do not possess titles or decorations; but as the value of such marks

of royal favour must depend, in a great measure, on their frequency, I

shall mention several particulars which are probably not familiar to

the English reader. [This analysis was made by comparing the list of the

Institute, printed for that body in 1827, with the ALMANACH ROYALE for

1823.]

Number of the Members of the Total Number of each Class

Institute of France who belong of the Legion of Honour.

to the Legion of Honour.

GrandCroix......... 3 80

GrandOfficier..... 3 160

Commandeur........ 4 400

Officier.......... 17 2,000

Chevalier......... 40 Not limited.

Number of Members of the Institute Total Number

decorated with of

the Order of St. Michel. that Order.

Grand Croix....... 2

100

Chevalier......... 27

Amongst the members of the Institute there

are,--

Dukes................... 2

Marquis................. 1

Counts.................. 4

Viscounts................ 2

Barons.................. 14

--23

Of these there are

Peers of France.......... 5

We might, on turning over the list of the 685 members of the Royal

Society, find a greater number of peers than there are in the Institute

of France; but a fairer mode of instituting the comparison, is to

inquire how many titled members there are amongst those who have

contributed to its Transactions. In 1827, there were one hundred and

nine members who had contributed to the Transactions of the Royal

Society; amongst these were found:--

Peer........................ 1

Baronets.................... 5

Knights..................... 5

It should be observed, that five of these titles were the rewards of

members of the medical profession, and one only, that of Sir H. Davy,

could be attributed exclusively to science.

It must not be inferred that the titles of nobility in the French list,

were all of them the rewards of scientific eminence; many are known to

have been such; but it would be quite sufficient for the argument to

mention the names of Lagrange, Laplace, Berthollet, and Chaptal.

The estimation in which the public hold literary claims in France and

England, was curiously illustrated by an incidental expression in the

translation of the debates in the House of Lords, on the occasion of His

Majesty's speech at the commencement of the session of 1830. The Gazette

de France stated, that the address was moved by the Duc de Buccleugh,

"CHEF DE LA MAISON DE WALTER SCOTT." Had an English editor wished to

particularize that nobleman, he would undoubtedly have employed the term

WEALTHY, or some other of the epithets characteristic of that quality

most esteemed amongst his countrymen.

If we turn, on the other hand, to the emoluments of science in France,

we shall find them far exceed those in our own country. I regret much

that I have mislaid a most interesting memorandum on this subject, which

I made several years since: but I believe my memory on the point will

not be found widely incorrect. A foreign gentleman, himself possessing

no inconsiderable acquaintance with science, called on me a few years

since, to present a letter of introduction. He had been but a short time

in London; and, in the course of our conversation, it appeared to me

that he had imbibed very inaccurate ideas respecting our encouragement

of science.

Thinking this a good opportunity of instituting a fair comparison

between the emoluments of science in the two countries, I placed a sheet

of paper before him, and requested him to write down the names of six

Englishmen, in his opinion, best known in France for their scientific

reputation. Taking another sheet of paper, I wrote upon it the names of

six Frenchmen, best known in England for their scientific discoveries.

We exchanged these lists, and I then requested him to place against each

name (as far as he knew) the annual income of the different appointments

held by that person. In the mean time, I performed the same operation on

his list, against some names of which I was obliged to place a ZERO. The

result of the comparison was an average of nearly 1200L. per annum for

the six French SAVANS whom I had named. Of the average amount of the

sums received by the English, I only remember that it was very much

smaller. When we consider what a command over the necessaries and

luxuries of life 1200L. will give in France, it is underrating it to say

it is equal to 2000L. in this country.

Let us now look at the prospects of a young man at his entrance into

life, who, impelled by an almost irresistible desire to devote himself

to the abstruser sciences, or who, confident in the energy of youthful

power, feels that the career of science is that in which his mental

faculties are most fitted to achieve the reputation for which he pants.

What are his prospects? Can even the glowing pencil of enthusiasm add

colour to the blank before him? There are no situations in the state;

there is no position in society to which hope can point, to cheer him

in his laborious path. If, indeed, he belong to one of our universities,

there are some few chairs in his OWN Alma Mater to which he may at some

distant day pretend; but these are not numerous; and whilst the salaries

attached are seldom sufficient for the sole support of the individual,

they are very rarely enough for that of a family. What then can he reply

to the entreaties of his friends, to betake himself to some business

in which perhaps they have power to assist him, or to choose some

profession in which his talents may produce for him their fair reward?

If he have no fortune, the choice is taken away: he MUST give up that

line of life in which his habits of thought and his ambition qualify

him to succeed eminently, and he MUST choose the bar, or some other

profession, in which, amongst so many competitors, in spite of his great

talents, he can be but moderately successful. The loss to him is

great, but to the country it is greater. We thus, by a destructive

misapplication of talent which our institutions create, exchange a

profound philosopher for but a tolerable lawyer.

If, on the other hand, he possess some moderate fortune of his own; and,

intent on the glory of an immortal name, yet not blindly ignorant of the

state of science in this country, he resolve to make for that aspiration

a sacrifice the greater, because he is fully aware of its extent;--if,

so circumstanced, he give up a business or a profession on which he

might have entered with advantage, with the hope that, when he shall

have won a station high in the ranks of European science, he may a

little augment his resources by some of those few employments to which

science leads;--if he hope to obtain some situation, (at the Board of

Longitude, for example,) [This body is now dissolved] where he may

be permitted to exercise the talents of a philosopher for the paltry

remuneration of a clerk, he will find that other qualifications than

knowledge and a love of science are necessary for its attainment. He

will also find that the high and independent spirit, which usually

dwells in the breast of those who are deeply versed in these pursuits,

is ill adapted for such appointments; and that even if successful, he

must hear many things he disapproves, and raise no voice AGAINST them.

Thus, then, it appears that scarcely any man can be expected to pursue

abstract science unless he possess a private fortune, and unless he

can resolve to give up all intention of improving it. Yet, how few thus

situated are likely to undergo the labour of the acquisition; and if

they do from some irresistible impulse, what inducement is there for

them to deviate one step from those inquiries in which they find the

greatest delight, into those which might be more immediately useful to

the public?

CHAPTER III. GENERAL STATE OF LEARNED SOCIETIES IN ENGLAND.

The progress of knowledge convinced the world that the system of the

division of labour and of cooperation was as applicable to science, as

it had been found available for the improvement of manufactures. The

want of competition in science produced effects similar to those which

the same cause gives birth to in the arts. The cultivators of botany

were the first to feel that the range of knowledge embraced by the Royal

Society was too comprehensive to admit of sufficient attention to their

favourite subject, and they established the Linnean Society. After many

years, a new science arose, and the Geological Society was produced. At

an another and more recent epoch, the friends of astronomy, urged by the

wants of their science, united to establish the Astronomical Society.

Each of these bodies found, that the attention devoted to their science

by the parent establishment was insufficient for their wants, and each

in succession experienced from the Royal Society the most determined

opposition.

Instituted by the most enlightened philosophers, solely for the

promotion of the natural sciences, that learned body justly conceived

that nothing could be more likely to render these young institutions

permanently successful, than discouragement and opposition at their

commencement. Finding their first attempts so eminently successful,

they redoubled the severity of their persecution, and the result was

commensurate with their exertions, and surpassed even their wildest

anticipations. The Astronomical Society became in six years known and

respected throughout Europe, not from the halo of reputation which

the glory of its vigourous youth had thrown around the weakness of its

declining years; but from the sterling merit of "its unpretending

deeds, from the sympathy it claimed and received from every practical

astronomer, whose labours it relieved, and whose calculations it

lightened."

But the system which worked so well is now changed, and the Zoological

and Medico-Botanical Societies were established without opposition:

perhaps, indeed, the total failure of the latter society is the best

proof of the wisdom which guided the councils of the Royal. At present,

the various societies exist with no feelings of rivalry or hostility,

each pursuing its separate objects, and all uniting in deploring with

filial regret, the second childhood of their common parent, and the evil

councils by which that sad event has been anticipated.

It is the custom to attach certain letters to the names of those who

belong to different societies, and these marks of ownership are by

many considered the only valuable part of their purchase on entry. The

following is a list of some of these societies. The second column gives

the ready-money prices of the tail-pieces indicated in the third.

SOCIETIES. Fees on Admission Appended

including Composition Letters

for Annual Payments.

L. s. d.

Royal Society............. 50 0 0 F.R.S.

Royal Society of Edinburgh. 25 4 0* F.R.S.E.

Royal Academy of Dublin... 26 5 0 M.R.I.A.

Royal Society of Literature 36 15 0 F.R.S.Lit.

Antiquarian............... 50 8 0 F.A.S.

Linnean................... 36 0 0 F.L.S.

Geological................ 34 15 0 F.G.S.

Astronomical.............. 25 4 0 M.A.S.

Zoological................ 26 5 0 F.Z.S.

Royal Institution......... 50 0 0 M.R.I.

Royal Asiatic.............. 31 10 0 F.R.A.S.

Horticultural............. 43 6 0 F.H.S.

Medico-Botanical.......... 21 0 0 F.M.B.S.

[* The Royal Society of Edinburgh now requires, for composition in lieu

of annual contributions, a sum dependent on the value of the life of the

member.]

Thus, those who are ambitious of scientific distinction, may, according

to their fancy, render their name a kind of comet, carrying with it a

tail of upwards of forty letters, at the average cost of 10L. 9s. 9d.

per letter.

Perhaps the reader will remark, that science cannot be declining in a

country which supports so many institutions for its cultivation. It is

indeed creditable to us, that the greater part of these societies are

maintained by the voluntary contributions of their members. But, unless

the inquiries which have recently taken place in some of them should

rectify the SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT by which several have been oppressed,

it is not difficult to predict that their duration will be short. Full

PUBLICITY, PRINTED STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS, and occasional DISCUSSIONS

and inquiries at GENERAL MEETINGS, are the only safeguards; and a due

degree of VIGILANCE should be exercised on those who DISCOURAGE these

principles. Of the Royal Society, I shall speak in a succeeding page;

and I regret to add, that I might have said more. My object is to amend

it; but, like all deeply-rooted complaints, the operation which alone

can contribute to its cure, is necessarily painful. Had the words of

remonstrance or reproof found utterance through other channels, I had

gladly been silent, content to support by my vote the reasonings of the

friend of science and of the Society. But this has not been the case,

and after frustrated efforts to introduce improvements, I shall now

endeavour, by the force of plain, but perhaps painful truths, to direct

public opinion in calling for such a reform, as shall rescue the Royal

Society from contempt in our own country, from ridicule in others.

On the next five societies in the list, I shall offer no remarks. Of the

Geological, I shall say a few words. It possesses all the freshness, the

vigour, and the ardour of youth in the pursuit of a youthful science,

and has succeeded in a most difficult experiment, that of having an oral

discussion on the subject of each paper read at its meetings. To say of

these discussions, that they are very entertaining, is the least part

of the praise which is due to them. They are generally very instructive,

and sometimes bring together isolated facts in the science which,

though insignificant when separate, mutually illustrate each other,

and ultimately lead to important conclusions. The continuance of these

discussions evidently depends on the taste, the temper, and the good

sense of the speakers. The things to be avoided are chiefly verbal

criticisms--praise of each other beyond its reasonable limits, and

contest for victory. This latter is, perhaps, the most important of the

three, both for the interests of the Society and of truth. With regard

to the published volumes of their Transactions, it may be remarked,

that if members were in the habit of communicating their papers to the

Society in a more finished state, it would be attended with several

advantages; amongst others, with that of lightening the heavy duties of

the officers, which are perhaps more laborious in this Society than in

most others. To court publicity in their accounts and proceedings,

and to endeavour to represent all the feelings of the Society in the

Council, and to avoid permanent Presidents, is a recommendation not

peculiarly addressed to this Society, but would contribute to the

well-being of all.

Of the Astronomical Society, which, from the nature of its pursuits,

could scarcely admit of the discussions similar to those of the

Geological, I shall merely observe, that I know of no secret which has

caused its great success, unless it be attention to the maxims which

have just been stated.

On the Zoological Society, which affords much rational amusement to the

public, a few hints may at present suffice. The largeness of its income

is a frightful consideration. It is too tempting as the subject for

jobs, and it is too fluctuating and uncertain in its amount, not to

render embarrassment in the affairs of the Society a circumstance likely

to occur, without the greatest circumspection. It is most probable, from

the very recent formation of this Institution, that its Officers and

Council are at present all that its best friends could wish; but it

is still right to mention, that in such a Society, it is essentially

necessary to have men of business on the Council, as well as persons

possessing extensive knowledge of its pursuits. It is more dangerous

in such a Society than in any other, to pay compliments, by placing

gentlemen on the Council who have not the qualifications which are

requisite; a frequent change in the members of the Council is desirable,

in order to find out who are the most regular attendants, and most

qualified to conduct its business. Publicity in its accounts and

proceedings is, from the magnitude of its funds, more essential to the

Zoological than to any other society; and it is rather a fearful omen,

that a check was attempted to be given to such inquiries at the last

anniversary meeting. If it is to be a scientific body, the friends of

science should not for an instant tolerate such attempts.

It frequently happens, that gentlemen take an active part in more

than one scientific society: in that case, it may be useful to derive

instruction as to their merits, by observing the success of their

measures in other societies.

The Asiatic Society has, amongst other benefits, caused many valuable

works to be translated, which could not have otherwise been published.

The Horticultural Society has been ridden almost to death, and is

now rousing itself; but its constitution seems to have been somewhat

impaired. There are hopes of its purgation, and ultimate restoration,

notwithstanding a debt of 19,000L., which the Committee of Inquiry have

ascertained to exist. This, after all, will not be without its advantage

to science, if it puts a stop to HOUSE-LISTS, NAMED BY ONE OR TWO

PERSONS,--to making COMPLIMENTARY councillors,--and to auditing the

accounts WITHOUT EXAMINING EVERY ITEM, or to omitting even that form

altogether.

The Medico-Botanical Society suddenly claimed the attention of the

public; its pretensions were great--its assurance unbounded. It speedily

became distinguished, not by its publications or discoveries, but by the

number of princes it enrolled in its list. It is needless now to expose

the extent of its short-lived quackery; but the evil deeds of that

institution will long remain in the impression they have contributed

to confirm throughout Europe, of the character of our scientific

establishments. It would be at once a judicious and a dignified course,

if those lovers of science, who have been so grievously deceived in this

Society, were to enrol upon the latest page of its history its highest

claim to public approbation, and by signing its dissolution, offer the

only atonement in their power to the insulted science of their country.

As with a singular inversion of principle, the society contrived to

render EXPULSION* the highest HONOUR it could confer; so it remains

for it to exemplify, in suicide, the sublimest virtue of which it is

capable. [* They expelled from amongst them a gentleman, of whom it is

but slight praise to say, that he is the first and most philosophical

botanist of our own country, and who is admired abroad as he is

respected at home. The circumstance which surprised the world was not

his exit from, but his previous entrance into that Society.]

CHAPTER IV. STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY IN PARTICULAR.

As the venerable first parent of English, and I might perhaps say, of

European scientific societies; as a body in the welfare of which, in

the opinions of many, the interests of British science are materially

involved, I may be permitted to feel anxiously, and to speak more in

detail.

SECTION 1. MODE OF BECOMING A FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

I have no intention of stating what ought to be the qualifications of

a Fellow of the Royal Society; but, for years, the practical mode of

arriving at that honour, has been as follows:--

A. B. gets any three Fellows to sign a certificate, stating that he

(A. B.) is desirous of becoming a member, and likely to be a useful and

valuable one. This is handed in to the Secretary, and suspended in the

meeting-room. At the end of ten weeks, if A. B. has the good fortune to

be perfectly unknown by any literary or scientific achievement, however

small, he is quite sure of being elected as a matter of course. If, on

the other hand, he has unfortunately written on any subject connected

with science, or is supposed to be acquainted with any branch of it, the

members begin to inquire what he has done to deserve the honour;

and, unless he has powerful friends, he has a fair chance of being

black-balled. [I understand that certificates are now read at the

Council, previously to their being hung up in the meeting-room; but I am

not aware that this has in the slightest degree diminished their number,

which was, at the time of writing this note, TWENTY-FOUR.]

In fourteen years' experience, the few whom I have seen rejected,

have all been known persons; but even in such cases a hope

remains;--perseverance will do much, and a gentleman who values so

highly the distinction of admission to the Royal Society, may try

again; and even after being twice black-balled, if he will a third time

condescend to express his desire to become a member, he may perhaps

succeed, by the aid of a hard canvass. In such circumstances, the odds

are much in favour of the candidate possessing great scientific claims;

and the only objection that could then reasonably be suggested, would

arise from his estimating rather too highly a distinction which had

become insignificant from its unlimited extension.

It should be observed, that all members contribute equally, and that

the sum now required is fifty pounds. It used, until lately, to be

ten pounds on entrance, and four pounds annually. The amount of this

subscription is so large, that it is calculated to prevent many men

of real science from entering the Society, and is a very severe tax on

those who do so; for very few indeed of the cultivators of science

rank amongst the wealthy classes. Several times, whilst I have been

consulting books or papers at Somerset House, persons have called to

ask the Assistant-secretary the mode of becoming a member of the Royal

Society. I should conjecture, from some of these applications, that it

is not very unusual for gentlemen in the country to order their agents

in London to take measures for putting them up at the Royal Society.

SECTION 2. OF THE PRESIDENCY AND VICE-PRESIDENCIES.

Why Mr. Davies Gilbert became President of the Royal Society I cannot

precisely say. Let him who penned, and those who supported this

resolution solve the enigma:

"It was Resolved,

"That it is the opinion of the Council that Davies Gilbert, Esq. is by

far the most fit person to be proposed to the Society at the approaching

anniversary as President, and that he be recommended accordingly."

To resolve that he was a FIT person might have been sufficiently

flattering: to state that he was the most fit, was a little hard upon

the rest of the Society; but to resolve that he was "BY FAR THE MOST

FIT" was only consistent with that strain of compliment in which his

supporters indulge, and was a eulogy, by no means unique in its kind, I

believe, even at that very Council.

That Mr. Gilbert is a most amiable and kind-hearted man will be

instantly admitted by all who are, in the least degree, acquainted with

him: that he is fit for the chair of the Royal Society, will be allowed

by few, except those who have committed themselves to the above-quoted

resolution.

Possessed of knowledge and of fortune more than sufficient for it, he

might have been the restorer of its lustre. He might have called round

him, at the council board, those most actively engaged in the pursuits

of science, most anxious for the improvement of the Royal Society.

Instead of himself proposing resolutions, he might have been, what a

chairman ought to be, the organ of the body over which he presides. By

the firmness of his own conduct he might have taught the subordinate

officers of the Society the duties of their station. Instead of paying

compliments to Ministers, who must have smiled at his simplicity, he

might have maintained the dignity of his Council by the dignity of

knowledge.

But he has chosen a different path; with no motives of interest

to allure, or of ambition to betray him, instead of making himself

respected as the powerful chief of a united republic,--that of

science,--he has grasped at despotic power, and stands the feeble

occupant of its desolated kingdom, trembling at the force of opinions

he might have directed, and refused even the patronage of their names by

those whose energies he might have commanded.

Mr. Gilbert told the Society he accepted the situation for a year; and

this circumstance caused a difficulty in finding a Treasurer: an office

which he had long held, and to which he wished to return.

Another difficulty might have arisen, from the fact of the late Board

of Longitude comprising amongst its Members the PRESIDENT of the Royal

Society, and three of its Fellows, appointed by the President and

Council. Of course, when Mr. Gilbert accepted the higher situation, he

became, EX OFFICIO, a Member of the Board of Longitude; and a vacancy

occurred, which ought to have been filled up by the President and

Council. But when this subject was brought before them, in defiance of

common sense, and the plain meaning of the act of parliament, which had

enacted that the Board of Longitude should have the assistance of four

persons belonging to the Royal Society, Mr. Gilbert refused to allow

it to be filled up, on the ground that he should not be President next

year, and had made no vacancy.

Next year Mr. Gilbert wished again to be President one other year; but

the Board of Longitude was dissolved, otherwise we might have had some

LOCUM TENENS to retire at Mr. Gilbert's pleasure.

These circumstances are in themselves of trifling importance, but they

illustrate the character of the proceedings: and it is not becoming

the dignity of science or of the Society that its officers should be so

circumstanced as to have an apparent and direct interest in supporting

the existing President, in order to retain their own places; and if

such a system is once discovered, doubt immediately arises as to the

frequency of such arrangements.

SECTION 3. OF THE SECRETARISHIPS.

Whether the present Secretaries are the best qualified to aid in

reforming the Society, is a question I shall not discuss. With regard

to the senior Secretary, the time of his holding office is perhaps more

unfortunate than the circumstance. If I might be permitted to allude

for a moment to his personal character, I should say that the mild

excellencies of his heart have prevented the Royal Society from deriving

the whole of that advantage from his varied knowledge and liberal

sentiments which some might perhaps have anticipated; and many will

agree with me in regretting that his judgment has not directed a larger

portion of the past deeds of the Councils of the Royal Society. Of the

junior Secretary I shall only observe, that whilst I admit his industry,

his perseverance, and his talents, I regret to see such valuable

qualities exerted at a disadvantage, and that I sincerely wish them

all the success they merit in situations more adapted for their

developement.

There are, however, some general principles which it may be important to

investigate, which relate to the future as well as to the past state of

the office of Secretary of the Royal Society. Inconvenience has already

arisen from having had at a former period one of our Secretaries the

conductor of a scientific journal; and this is one of the points in

which I can agree with those who now manage the affairs of the Society.

[These observations were written previous to the late appointment, to

which I now devote Section 6. Experience seems to be lost on the Council

of the Royal Society.] Perhaps it might be advantageous to extend the

same understanding to the other officers of the Society at least, if not

to the members of its Council.

Another circumstance worthy of the attention of the Society is, to

consider whether it is desirable, except in special cases, to have

military persons appointed to any of its offices. There are several

peculiarities in the military character, which, though they do not

absolutely unfit their possessors for the individual prosecution of

science, may in some degree disqualify such persons from holding offices

in scientific institutions. The habits both of obedience and command,

which are essential in military life, are little fitted for that perfect

freedom which should reign in the councils of science. If a military

chief commit an oversight or an error, it is necessary, in order to

retain the confidence of those he commands, to conceal or mask it as

much as possible. If an experimentalist make a mistake, his only course

to win the confidence of his fellow-labourers in science, and to render

his future observations of any use, is to acknowledge it in the most

full and explicit manner. The very qualifications which contribute to

the professional excellence of the soldier, constitute his defects when

he enters the paths of science; and it is only in those rare cases where

the force of genius is able to control and surmount these habits,

that his admission to the offices of science can be attended with any

advantage to it.

Another objection deserving notice, although not applying exclusively to

the military profession, is, that persons not imbued with the feelings

of men of science, when they have published their observations, are too

apt to view every criticism upon them as a personal question, and

to consider that it is as offensive to doubt the accuracy of their

observations as it is to doubt their word. Nothing can be more injurious

to science than that such an opinion should be tolerated. The most

unreserved criticism is necessary for truth; and those suspicions

respecting his own accuracy, which every philosophical experimenter will

entertain concerning his own researches, ought never to be considered as

a reproach, when they are kept in view in examining the experiments of

others. The minute circumstances and apparently trivial causes which

lend their influence towards error, even in persons of the most candid

judgment, are amongst the most curious phenomena of the human mind.

The importance of affording every aid to enable others to try the merits

of observations, has been so well expressed by Mayer, that I shall

conclude these remarks with an extract from the Preface to his

Observations:

"Officii enim cujusque observatoris ease reor, de habitu instrumenti

sui, de cura ac precautione, qua usus est, ad illud recte tractandum,

deque mediis in errores ejus inquirendi rationem reddere publice, ut

aliis quoque copia sit judicandi, quanta fides habenda conclusionibus ex

nostris observationibus deductis aut deducendis. Hoc cum minus fecissent

precedentis saeculi astronomi, praxin nimis secure, nimisque theoretice

tractantes, factum inde potissimum est, ut illorum observationes tot

vigiliis tantoque labore comparatae tam cito obsoleverint." P. viii.

There are certain duties which the Royal Society owes to its own

character as well as to the public, which, having been on some occasions

apparently neglected, it may be here the proper place to mention,

since it is reasonable to suppose that attention to them is within the

province of its Secretaries.

The first to which I shall allude is the singular circumstances

attending the fact of the Royal Society having printed a volume

of Astronomical Observations which were made at the Observatory of

Paramatta (New South Wales), bearing the title of "The Third Part of the

Philosophical Transactions for the Year 1829."

Now this Observatory was founded at the private expense of a British

officer; the instruments were paid for out of his purse; two observers

were brought from Europe, to be employed in making use of those

instruments, at salaries defrayed by him. A considerable portion of

the observations so printed were made by these astronomers during their

employment in his service, and some of them are personally his own. Yet

has the Royal Society, in adopting them as part of its Transactions,

omitted all mention, either in their title-page, preface, or in any

part of the volume, of the FACT that the world owed these valuable

observations to the enlightened munificence of Lieutenant-General Sir

Thomas Brisbane; whose ardent zeal in the pursuit of science induced him

to found, at his own private expense, an establishment which it has

been creditable to the British Government to continue as a national

institution. Had any kindred feelings existed in the Council, instead

of endeavouring to shift the responsibility, they would have hastened to

rectify an omission, less unjust to the individual than it was injurious

to English science.

Another topic, which concerns most vitally the character and integrity

of the Royal Society, I hardly know how to approach. It has been

publicly stated that confidence cannot be placed in the written minutes

of the Society; and an instance has been adduced, in which an entry

has been asserted to have been made, which could not have been the true

statement of what actually passed at the Council.

The facts on which the specific instance rests are not difficult to

verify by members of the Royal Society. I have examined them, and shall

state them before I enter on the reasoning which may be founded upon

them. In the minutes of the Council, 26th November, 1829, we find--

"Resolved, that the following gentlemen be recommended to be put upon

the Council for the ensuing year." [Here follows a list of persons,

amongst whom the name of Sir John Franklin occurs [Sir John Franklin was

absent from London, and altogether unacquainted with this transaction,

until he saw it stated in the newspapers some months after it had

taken place. That his name was the one substituted for that of Captain

Beaufort I know, from other evidence which need not be produced here, as

the omission of the latter name is the charge that has been made.],

and that of Captain Beaufort is not found. [Any gentleman may satisfy

himself that this is not a mistake of the Assistant Secretary's, in

copying, by consulting the rough minutes of that meeting of the Council,

which it might perhaps be as well to write in a rough minute-book,

instead of upon loose sheets of paper; nor can it be attributed to any

error arising from accidentally mislaying the real minutes, for in that

case the error would have been rectified immediately it was detected;

and this has remained uncorrected, although publicly spoken of for

months. As there is no erasure in the list, one is reluctantly

compelled to conjecture that the real minutes of that meeting have been

destroyed.]]

Now this could not be the list actually recommended by the Council on

the morning of the 26th of November, because the President himself, on

the evening of that day, informed Capt. Beaufort that he was placed on

the house list; and that officer, with the characteristic openness of

his profession, wrote on the next or the following day to the President,

declining that situation, and stating his reasons for the step.

Upon the fact, therefore, of the suppression of part of a resolution

of the Council, on the 26th of November, there can be no doubt; but

in order to understand the whole nature of the transaction, other

information is necessary. It has been the wish of many members of the

Society, that the President should not absolutely name his own Council,

but that the subject should be discussed fairly at the meeting previous

to the Anniversary--this has always been opposed by Mr. Gilbert, and

those who support him. Now, it has been stated, that, at the meeting

of the Council on the 26th of November, the President took out of his

pocket a bit of paper, from which he read the names of several persons

as fit to be on the Council for the ensuing year;--that it was not

understood that any motion was made, and it is certain that none was

seconded, nor was any ballot taken on such an important question; and

it was a matter of considerable surprise to some of those present, to

discover afterwards that it was entered on the minutes as a resolution.

This statement I have endeavoured to verify, and I believe it to be

substantially correct; if it was a resolution, it was dictated, not

discussed. It is also important to observe, that no similar resolution

stands on the council-books for any previous year.

On examining the minutes of the succeeding Council, no notice of

the letter of Captain Beaufort to the President is found. Why was it

omitted? If the first entry had been truly made, there would have been

no necessity for the omission; and after the insertion of that letter,

a resolution would naturally have followed, recommending another name

instead of the one withdrawn. Such was the natural and open course; but

this would have exposed to the Society the weakness of those who manage

it. If the rough minutes of each meeting of the Council were read over

before it separated, and were copied previously to the next meeting,

such a substitution could hardly have occurred; but, unfortunately, this

is not the case, and the delay is in some cases considerable. Thus, the

minutes of the three Councils, held on February 4, on February 11, and

on March 11, were not entered on the minute-books of the Council

on Tuesday, the 16th March; nor was this the fault of the

Assistant-secretary, for up to that day the rough minutes of no one of

those Councils had been transmitted to him.

Deeply as every friend to the Royal Society must regret such an

occurrence, one slight advantage may accrue. Should that resolution be

ever quoted hereafter to prove that the Council of 1829 really discussed

the persons to be recommended as their successors, the detection of

this suppression of one portion of it, will furnish better means of

estimating the confidence due to the whole.

SECTION 4. OF THE SCIENTIFIC ADVISERS.

Whether it was feared by the PARTY who govern the Royal Society,

that its Council would not be sufficiently tractable, or whether the

Admiralty determined to render that body completely subservient to them,

or whether both these motives concurred, I know not; but, low as has

been for years its character for independence, and fallen as the Royal

Society is in public estimation, it could scarcely be prepared for

this last insult. In order to inform the public and the Society, (for I

believe the fact is known to few of the members,) it will be necessary

to trace the history of those circumstances which led to the institution

of the offices of Scientific Advisers, from the time of the existence of

the late Board of Longitude.

That body consisted, according to the act of parliament which

established it, of certain official members, who usually possessed no

knowledge of the subjects it was the duty of the Board to discuss--of

certain professors of the two universities, and the Astronomer Royal,

who had some knowledge, and who were paid 100L. a year for their

attendance;--of three honorary members of the Royal Society, who

combined the qualifications of the two preceding classes; and, lastly,

of "three other persons," named Resident Commissioners, who were

supposed to be "WELL VERSED IN THE SCIENCES OF MATHEMATICS, ASTRONOMY,

OR NAVIGATION," and who were paid a hundred a year to do the work of the

Board.

The first three classes were permanent members, but the "three other

persons" only held the appointment for ONE YEAR, and were renewable at

the pleasure of the Admiralty. This Board was abolished by another act

of parliament, on the ground that it was useless. Shortly after, the

Secretary of the Admiralty communicated to the Council of the Royal

Society, the copy of an Order in Council:

ADMIRALTY OFFICE,

November 1, 1828.

SIR, I am commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, to send

herewith, for the information of the President and Council of the Royal

Society, a copy of His Majesty's Order in Council of the 27th of last

month; explaining that the salaries heretofore allowed to the Resident

Commissioners of the Board of Longitude, and to the Superintendents of

the Nautical Almanac, and of Chronometers, shall be continued to them,

notwithstanding the abolition of the Board of Longitude. And I am to

acquaint you, that the necessary orders have been given to the Navy

Board for the payment of the said salaries.

I am, Sir,

Your most obedient humble servant,

JOHN BARROW.

AT THE COURT AT WINDSOR,

27th October, 1828.

PRESENT,

The King's most Excellent Majesty in Council,

Whereas, there was this day read at the Board a Memorial from the Right

Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, dated 4th of this

instant, in the words following, viz.--

Whereas, by an Act of the 58th of his late Majesty's reign, cap. 20,

instituted "An Act for the more effectually discovering the Longitude

at sea, and encouraging attempts to find a Northern passage between

the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and to approach the North Pole,"

three persons well versed in the sciences of Mathematics, Astronomy,

or Navigation, were appointed as a Resident Committee of the Board

of Commissioners for discovery of the Longitude at sea, and a

Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac and of Chronometers was also

appointed, with such salaries for the execution of those services as

his Majesty might, by any Order in Council, be pleased to direct; and,

whereas, your Majesty was in consequence, by your Order in Council of

the 27th of May, 1828, most graciously pleased to direct, that the three

said Resident Commissioners should be paid at the rate of 100L. a year

each; and by your further Order in Council, of the 31st October, 1818,

that the Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac should be allowed a

salary of 300L., and the Superintendent of Chronometers 100L. a year;

and, whereas, the act above mentioned has been repealed, and the Board

of Longitude abolished; and doubts have therefore arisen, whether the

said Orders in Council shall still continue in force; and whereas it

is expedient that the said appointments be continued; We beg leave most

humbly to submit to your Majesty, that your Majesty may be graciously

pleased, by your Order in Council, to direct that the said offices

of Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, and of Superintendent of

Chronometers; and also the three persons before-mentioned as a Resident

Committee, to advise with the Commissioners for executing the Office

of Lord High Admiral, on all questions of discoveries, inventions,

calculations, and other scientific subjects, be continued, with the same

duties and salaries, and under the same regulations as heretofore; and

further beg most humbly to propose, that such three persons to form

the Resident Committee, be chosen annually by the Commissioners for

executing the office of Lord High Admiral, from among the Council of the

Royal Society.

His Majesty, having taken the said Memorial into consideration, was

pleased, by and with the advice of his Privy Council, to approve thereof

and the Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty are to

give the necessary directions herein accordingly.

(Signed) JAMES HILLER.

Thus, it appeared that the Admiralty were to choose three persons from

among the Council of the Royal Society, who were to have a hundred a

year each during the pleasure of the Admiralty.

Such an open attack on the independence of the Council could not escape

the remarks of some of the members, and a kind of mild remonstrance was

made, in which the real ground of complaint was omitted.

MINUTE OF COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. December 18, 1823.

RESOLVED, That in acknowledging the communication of the Lords

Commissioners of the Admiralty, made to the Council of the Royal

Society, on the 20th of November last, it be represented to them that

inconvenience may arise from the plan therein specified, from the

circumstance of all the members of the Council being annually elected

by the Society at large; and that body being consequently subject to

continual changes from year to year.

This was answered by the following letter from the Secretary of the

Admiralty:

ADMIRALTY OFFICE, DEC. 30, 1828.

SIR, Having submitted to my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty your

Letter of the 18th instant, subjoining an extract from the Minutes of

the proceedings of the Council of the Royal Society, arising out of the

communication made to them by their Lordships, on the subject of his

Majesty's Order in Council, of the fifth of October last, I have their

Lordships' command to acquaint you, for the information of the President

and Council, and with reference to what they have stated as to the

inconvenience which may arise from the intended plan of limiting their

Lordships' choice of members of the Resident Committee of Scientific

Advice to the Council of the Royal Society, that their Lordships were

induced to recommend this plan to his Majesty as a mark of respect to

the Society, and as a pledge to the public of the qualification of the

persons chosen. Nor did their Lordships apprehend any inconvenience from

the circumstance stated in the Minute of the Council, of the Members

being annually elected, as the Resident Committee is also annually

appointed; and, in point of fact, no practical inconvenience has been

felt during the ten years that the Committee has been in existence,

as four of the distinguished gentlemen whom their Lordships have

successively appointed to this office, have continued during the whole

period to be members of the Council; and if any such difficulty or

inconvenience should hereafter arise, their Lordships will be ready to

take proper measures for remedying it.

Their Lordships' intention therefore is, to propose to Captain Kater and

Mr. Herschel, to continue to fill this office; and to Dr. Young, who had

resigned it, on receiving the appointment of Secretary to the late Board

of Longitude, to be appointed.

I am, Sir, Your obedient servant,

JOHN BARROW.

The representation made by the Council was not calculated to produce

much effect; but the Secretary of the Admiralty, who knew well the stuff

of which Councils of the Royal Society are composed, might have spared

the bitter irony of making their Lordships say, that they recommended

this plan "AS A MARK OF RESPECT TO THE SOCIETY," and "AS A PLEDGE TO

THE PUBLIC OF THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PERSONS CHOSEN," whilst he

delicately hints to them their dependent situation, by observing, that

the "RESIDENT COMMITTEE IS ALSO ANNUALLY APPOINTED."

The Secretary knew that, PRACTICALLY speaking, it had been the custom

for years for the President of the Royal Society to nominate the

Council, and consequently he knew that every scientific adviser must

first be indebted to the President for being qualified to advise, and

then to the Admiralty for deriving profit from his counsel. Thus then

their Lordships, as a "MARK OF RESPECT FOR THE SOCIETY" confirm the

dependence of the Council on the President, by making his nomination

a qualification for place, and establish a new dependence of the same

Council on themselves, by giving a hundred pounds each year to such

three members of that Council as they may select. "THE PLEDGE" they

offer "TO THE PUBLIC, OF THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PERSONS CHOSEN," is,

that Mr. Davies Gilbert had previously thought they would do for his

Council.

What the Society, when they are acquainted with it, may think of this

mark of respect, or what value the public may put upon this pledge, must

be left to themselves to express.

In looking over the list of officers and Council of the Royal Society

the weakest perhaps (for purposes of science) which was ever made, a

consolation arises from the possibility of some of those who were placed

there by way of compliment, occasionally attending. In that contracted

field Lord Melville's penetration may not be uselessly employed; and the

soldier who presides over our colonies may judge whether the principles

which pervade it are open and liberal as his own.

The inconvenience to the public service from such an arrangement is,

that the number out of which the advisers are selected must, in

any case, be very small; and may, from several circumstances, be

considerably reduced. In a council fairly selected, to judge of

the merits of the various subjects likely to be brought under the

consideration of the Society, anatomy, chemistry, and the different

branches of natural history, will share with the numerous departments of

physical science, in claiming to be represented by persons competently

skilled in those subjects. These claims being satisfied, but few places

will be left to fill up with mathematicians, astronomers, and persons

conversant with nautical astronomy.

Let us look at the present Council. Is there a single mathematician

amongst them, if we except Mr Barlow, whose deservedly high reputation

rests chiefly on his physical and experimental inquiries, and whom the

President and the Admiralty have clearly shown they do not look upon as

a mathematician, by not appointing him an adviser?

Small as the number of those persons on the Council, who are conversant

with the three subjects named in the Act of Parliament, must usually

be, it may be still further diminished. The President, when he forms

his Council, may decline naming those members who are most fit for such

situations. Or, on the other hand, some of those members who are best

qualified for them, from their knowledge, may decline the honour of

being the nominees of Mr. Gilbert, as Vice Presidents, Treasurers, or

Councillors, and thus lending their names to support a system of which

they disapprove.

Whether the first of these causes has ever operated can be best

explained by those gentlemen who have been on the Council. The refusals

are, notwithstanding the President's taciturnity on the subject, better

known than he is willing that they should be.

Having discussed the general policy of the measure, with reference both

to the Society and to the public, and without the slightest reference

to the individuals who may have refused or accepted those situations, I

shall now examine the propriety of the appointments that have been made.

Doubtless the gentlemen who now hold those situations either have never

considered the influence such a mode of selection would have on the

character of the Council; or, having considered it, they must have

arrived at a different conclusion from mine. There may, however,

be arguments which I have overlooked, and a discussion of them must

ultimately lead to truth: but I confess that it appears to me the

objections which have been stated rest on principles of human nature,

too deeply seated to be easily removed.

That I am not singular in the view I have taken of this subject, appears

from several circumstances. A question was asked respecting these

appointments at the Anniversary before the last; and, from the nature of

the answer, many of the members of the Society have been led to believe

the objections have been removed. Several Fellows of the Society, who

knew these facts, thought it inexpedient ever to vote for placing any

gentleman on the Council who had accepted these situations; and,

having myself the same view of the case, I applied to the Council to be

informed of the names of the present Scientific Advisers. But although

they remonstrated against the PRINCIPLE, they replied that they had "NO

COGNIZANCE" of the fact.

The two first members of the Council, Mr. Herschel and Captain

Kater, who were so appointed, and who had previously been Resident

Commissioners under the Act, immediately refused the situations. Dr.

Young became one of the Advisers; and Captain Sabine and Mr. Faraday

were appointed by the Admiralty as the two remaining ones. Of Dr. Young,

who died shortly after, I shall only observe that he possessed knowledge

which qualified him for the situation.

Whether those who at present fill these offices can be said to belong

to that class of persons which the Order in Council and the Act of

Parliament point out, is a matter on which doubt may reasonably be

entertained. The Order in Council speaks of these three persons as being

the same, and having the "SAME DUTIES" as those mentioned in the Act;

and it recites the words of the Act, that they shall be persons "WELL

VERSED IN THE SCIENCES OF MATHEMATICS ASTRONOMY, AND NAVIGATION." Of

the fitness of the gentlemen who now hold those situations to pronounce

judgment on mathematical questions, the public will be better able to

form an opinion when they shall have communicated to the world any

of their own mathematical inquiries. Although it is the practice to

consider that acceptance of office is alone necessary to qualify a man

for a statesman, a similar doctrine has not yet prevailed in the world

of science. One of these gentlemen, who has established his reputation

as a chemist, stands in the same predicament with respect to the other

two sciences. It remains then to consider Captain Sabine's claims, which

must rest on his skill in "PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY AND NAVIGATION,"--a claim

which can only be allowed when the scientific world are set at rest

respecting the extraordinary nature of those observations contained in

his work on the Pendulum.

That volume, printed under the authority of the Board of Longitude,

excited at its appearance considerable attention. The circumstance of

the Government providing instruments and means of transport for the

purpose of these inquiries, placed at Captain Sabine's disposal means

superior to those which amateurs can generally afford, whilst the

industry with which he availed himself of these opportunities, enabled

him to bring home multitudes of observations from situations rarely

visited with such instruments, and for such purposes.

The remarkable agreement with each other, which was found to exist

amongst each class of observations, was as unexpected by those most

conversant with the respective processes, as it was creditable to one

who had devoted but a few years to the subject, and who, in the course

of those voyages, used some of the instruments for the first time in his

life.

This accordance amongst the results was such, that naval officers of the

greatest experience, confessed themselves unable to take such

lunars; whilst other observers, long versed in the use of the transit

instrument, avowed their inability to take such transits. Those who were

conversant with pendulums, were at a loss how to make, even under more

favourable circumstances, similarly concordant observations. The same

opinion prevailed on the continent as well as in England. On whatever

subject Captain Sabine touched, the observations he published seemed by

their accuracy to leave former observers at a distance. The methods

of using the instruments scarcely differed in any important point from

those before adopted; and, but for a fortunate discovery, which I shall

presently relate, the world must have concluded that Captain Sabine

possessed some keenness of vision, or acuteness of touch, which it would

be hopeless for any to expect to rival.

The Council of the Royal Society spared no pains to stamp the accuracy

of these observations with their testimony. They seem to have thrust

Captain Sabine's name perpetually on their minutes, and in a manner

which must have been almost distressing: they recommend him in a letter

to the Admiralty, then in another to the Ordnance; and several of

the same persons, in their other capacity, as members of the Board of

Longitude, after voting him a THOUSAND POUNDS for these observations,

are said to have again recommended him to the Master-General of the

Ordnance. That an officer, commencing his scientific career, should be

misled by such praises, was both natural and pardonable; but that the

Council of the Royal Society should adopt their opinion so heedlessly,

and maintain it so pertinaciously, was as cruel to the observer as it

was injurious to the interests of science.

It might have been imagined that such praises, together with the Copley

medal, presented to Captain Sabine by the Royal Society, and the medal

of Lalande, given to him by the Institute of France, had arisen from

such a complete investigation of his observations, as should place them

beyond the reach even of criticism. But, alas! the Royal Society may

write, and nobody will attend; its medals have lost their lustre;

and even the Institute of France may find that theirs cannot confer

immortality. That learned body is in the habit of making most

interesting and profound reports on any memoirs communicated to it;

nothing escapes the penetration of their committees appointed for such

purposes. Surely, when they enter on the much more important subject

of the award of a medal, unusual pains must be taken with the previous

report, and it might, perhaps, be of some advantage to science, and

might furnish their admirers with arguments in their defence, if they

would publish that on which the decree of their Lalande's medal to

Captain Sabine was founded.

It is far from necessary to my present object, to state all that has

been written and said respecting these pendulum experiments: I shall

confine myself merely to two points; one, the transit observations, I

shall allude to, because I may perhaps show the kind of feeling that

exists respecting them, and possibly enable Captain Sabine to explain

them. The other point, the error in the estimation of the division of

the level, I shall discuss, because it is an admitted fact.

Some opinion may be formed of transit observations, by taking the

difference of times of the passage of any star between the several

wires; supposing the distances of those wires equal, the intervals of

time occupied by the star in passing from one to the other, ought to be

precisely the same. As those times of passing from one wire to another

are usually given to seconds and tenths of seconds, it rarely happens

that the accordance is perfect.

The transit instrument used by Captain Sabine was thirty inches in

length, and the wires are stated to be equi-distant. Out of about 370

transits, there are eighty-seven, or nearly one-fourth, which have the

intervals between all the wires agreeing to the same, the tenth of

a second. At Sierra Leone, nineteen out of seventy-two have the same

accordance; and of the moon culminating stars, p. 409, twelve out of

twenty-four are equally exact. With larger instruments, and in great

observatories, this is not always the case.

Captain Kater has given, in the Philosophical Transactions, 1819, p.

427, a series of transits, with a three and a half foot transit, in

which about one-eleventh part of them only have this degree of accuracy;

and it should be observed that not merely the instrument, but the stars

selected, have, in this instance, an advantage over Captain Sabine's.

The transit of M. Bessel is five feet in length, made by Frauenhofer,

and the magnifying power employed is 182; yet, out of some observations

of his in January, 1826, only one-eleventh have this degree of

accordance. In thirty-three of the Greenwich observations of January,

1828, fifteen have this agreement, or five-elevenths; but this is with

a ten-feet transit. Now in none of these instances do the times agree

within a tenth of a second between all the wires; but I have accounted

those as agreeing in all the wires in which there is not more than

four-tenths of a second between the greatest and least.

This superior accuracy of the small instrument requires some

explanation. One which has been suggested is, that Captain Sabine

employs a chronometer to observe transits with; and that since it beats

five times in two seconds, each beat will give four-tenths of a second;

and this being the smallest quantity registered, the agreement becomes

more probable than if tenths were the smallest quantities noticed. In

general, the larger the lowest unity employed the greater will be the

apparent agreement amongst the differences. Thus, if, in the transit of

stars near the pole, the times of passing the wires were only registered

to the nearest minute, the intervals would almost certainly be equal.

There is another circumstance, about which there is some difficulty. It

is understood that the same instrument,--the thirty-inch transit, was

employed by Lieutenant Foster; and it has not been stated that the wires

were changed, although this has most probably been the case. Now, in the

transits which the later observer has given, he has found it necessary

to correct for a considerable inequality between the first and second

wires (See Phil. Trans. 1827). If an erroneous impression has gone

abroad on this subject, it is doing a service to science to insure its

correction, by drawing attention to it.

Should these observations be confirmed by other observers, it would seem

to follow that the use of a chronometer renders a transit more exact,

and therefore that it ought to be used in observatories.

Among the instruments employed by Captain Sabine, was a repeating circle

of six inches diameter, made by order of the Board of Longitude, for the

express purpose of ascertaining how far repeating instruments might be

diminished in size:--a most important subject, on which the Board seem

to have entertained a very commendable degree of anxiety.

The following extract from the "Pendulum Experiments" is important:

"The repeating circle was made by the direction, and at the expense of

the Board of Longitude, for the purpose of exemplifying the principle

of repetition when applied to a circle of so small a diameter as six

inches, carrying a telescope of seven inches focal length, and one inch

aperture; and of practically ascertaining the degree of accuracy which

might be retained, whilst the portability of the instrument should be

increased, by a reduction in the size to half the amount which had been

previously regarded by the most eminent artists as the extreme limit

of diminution to which repeating circles, designed for astronomical

purposes, ought to be carried.

"The practical value of the six-inch repeating circle may be estimated,

by comparing the differences of the partial results from the mean at

each station, with the correspondence of any similar collection of

observations made with a circle, on the original construction, and of

large dimensions; such, for instance, as the latitudes of the stations

of the French are, recorded in the Base du Systeme Metrique: when, if

due allowance be made for the extensive experience and great skill of

the distinguished persons who conducted the French observations, the

comparison will scarcely appear to the disadvantage of the smaller

circle, even if extended generally through all the stations of the

present volume; but if it be particularly directed to Maranham and

Spitzbergen,--at which stations the partial results were more numerous

than elsewhere, and obtained with especial regard to every circumstance

by which their accuracy might be affected, the performance of the

six-inch circle will appear fully equal to that of circles of the larger

dimension. The comparison with the two stations, at which a more than

usual attention was bestowed, is the more appropriate, because it was

essential to the purposes for which the latitudes of the French stations

were required, that the observations should always be conducted with the

utmost possible regard to accuracy.

"It would appear, therefore, that in a repeating circle of six inches,

the disadvantages of a smaller image enabling a less precise contact

or bisection, and of an arch of less radius admitting of a less minute

subdivision, may be compensated by the principle of repetition."

Captain Sabine has pointed out Maranham and Spitzbergen as places most

favourable to the comparison. Let us take the former of these places,

and compare the observations made there with the small repeating

instrument of six inches diameter, with those made by the French

astronomers at Formentera, with a repeating circle of forty-one

centi-metres, or about sixteen inches in diameter, made by Fortin. It

is singular that this instrument was directed, by the French Board

of Longitude, to be made expressly for this survey, and the French

astronomers paid particular attention to it, from the circumstance

of some doubts having been entertained respecting the value of the

principle of repetition.

The following series of observations were made with the two instruments.

[I have chosen the inferior meridian altitude of Polaris, merely because

the number of sets of observations are rather fewer. The difference

between the extremes of the altitude of Polaris, deduced from sets taken

above the pole by the same observers, amounts to seven seconds and a

half.]

Latitude deduced from Polaris, with a repeating circle, 16 inches

diameter.--BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE, tom. iv. p. 376. 1807.

Number of Latitude Names of Observers.

Observations. of Formentera.

deg. min. sec.

64 38 39 55.3 Biot

100 54.7 Arago

10 56.2 Biot

88 56.9 Biot

120 56.7 Arago

84 54.9 Biot

100 56.5 Arago

102 57.1 Arago

80 54.5 Biot

88 53.3 Arago

90 53.6 Arago

88 53.8 Arago

92 53.7 Arago

42 55.6 Chaix

90 54.1 Chaix

80 53.9 Arago

Mean of 1318 Observations, 38deg. 39min. 54.93sec.

Sets of Observations made with a six-inch repeating circle, at Maranham.

Star. Number of Latitude Observer.

Observations. deduced.

deg. min. sec.

alpha Lyrae 8 2 31 42.4 Capt. Sabine

alpha Lyrae 12 43.8 Ditto

alpha Pavonis 10 44.5 Ditto

alpha Lyrae 12 44.6 Ditto

alpha Cygni 12 42.1 Ditto

alpha Gruris 12 42.2 Ditto

Mean latitude deduced from 66 observations 2deg. 31min 43.3sec.

In comparing these results, although the French observations were more

than twenty times as numerous as the English, yet the deviations of the

individual sets from the mean are greater. One second and three-tenths

is the greatest deviation from the mean of the Maranham observations;

whilst the greatest deviation of those of Formentera, is two seconds

and two-tenths. If this mode of comparison should be thought unfair, on

account of the greater number of the sets in the French observations,

let any six, in succession, of those sets be taken, and compared with

the six English sets; and it will be found that in no one instance is

the greatest deviation from the mean of the whole of the observations

less than in those of Maranham. It must also be borne in mind, that

by the latitude deduced by the mean of 1250 superior culminations of

Polaris by the same observers, the latitude of Formentera was found to

be 38deg. 39min 57.07sec., a result differing by 2.14sec. from the mean

of the 1318 inferior culminations given above. [This difference cannot

be accounted for by any difference in the tables of refraction, as

neither the employment of those of Bradley, of Piazzi, of the French, of

Groombridge, of Young, of Ivory, of Bessel, or of Carlini, would make a

difference of two-tenths of a second.]

These facts alone ought to have awakened the attention of Captain

Sabine, and of those who examined and officially pronounced on the

merits of his observations; for, supposing the skill of the observers

equal, it seems a necessary consequence that "the performance of the

six-inch circle is" not merely "fully equal to that of circles of larger

dimensions," but that it is decidedly SUPERIOR to one of sixteen inches

in diameter.

This opinion did indeed gain ground for a time; but, fortunately for

astronomy, long after these observations were made, published, and

rewarded, Captain Kater, having borrowed the same instrument, discovered

that the divisions of its level, which Captain Sabine had considered to

be equal to one second each, were, in fact, more nearly equal to eleven

seconds, each one being 10.9sec. This circumstance rendered necessary

a recalculation of all the observations made with that instrument: a

re-calculation which I am not aware Captain Sabine has ever thought it

necessary to publish. [Above two hundred sets of observations with this

instrument are given in the work alluded to. It can never be esteemed

satisfactory merely to state the mean results of the corrections arising

from this error: for the confidence to be attached to that mean will

depend on the nature of the deviations from it.]

This is the more to be regretted, as it bears upon a point of

considerable importance to navigation; and if it should have caused

any alteration in his opinion as to the comparative merits of great and

small instruments, it might have been expected from a gentleman, who was

expressly directed by the Board of Longitude, to try the question with

an instrument constructed for that especial purpose.

Finding that this has not been done by the person best qualified for

the task, perhaps a few remarks from one who has no pretensions to

familiarity with the instrument, may tend towards elucidating this

interesting question.

The following table gives the latitudes as corrected for the error of

level:

Station. Star Latitude Latitude Diffe-

by Capt. corrected for rence

Sabine error of level.

deg.min.sec. deg.min.sec. sec.

Sierra Leone Sirius 8 29 27.9 8 29 34.7 6.8

Ascension Alph.Centuri 7 55 46.7 7 55 40.1 6.6

Bahia Alph.Lyrae 12 59 19.4 12 59 21.4 2.0

Alph.Lyrae 21.2 58 49.8 31.4

Alph.Pavonis 22.4 59 5.1 17.3

Maranham Alph.Lyrae 2 31 42.4 2 31 22 20.4

Alph.Lyrae 43.8 31.8 12.0

Alph.Pavonis 44.5 44 .5

Alph.Lyrae 44.6 42.6 2.0

Alph.Cygni 42.1 39.2 2.9

Alph.Gruris 42.2 27.4 14.8

Trinidad Achernar 10 38 56.1 10 38 58.2 2.1

Alph.Gruris 52.2 50.8 1.4

Achernar 59.3 56.6 2.7

Jamaica Polaris 17 56 8.6 17 56 4.6 4.0

6.6 3.3 3.3

New York Sun 40 42 40.1 40 42 44.6 4.5

Polaris 48.9 38.2 10.7

Sun 41.4 47.2 5.8

Beta Urs.Min. 42.3 58.4 16.1

Hammerfest Sun 70 40 5.3 70 40 7.2 1.9

Spitzbergen Sun 79 49 56.1 79 49 58.6 2.5

Sun 55.9 44.8 11.1

Sun 58.6 52.7 5.9

Sun 59.3 51.6 7.7

Sun 55.8 51.6 4.2

Sun 50 1.5 57.0 4.5

Greenland Sun 74 32 19.9 74 32 32.4 12.4

Sun 17.9 18.7 0.8

Drontheim Sun 63 25 51.3 63 26 6.1 14.8

Alph.Urs.Min. 57.2 49.4 7.8

This presents a very different view of the latitudes as determined by

the small repeating circle, from that in Captain Sabine's book; and

confining ourselves still to Maranham, where the latitudes "WERE

OBTAINED, WITH ESPECIAL REGARD TO EVERY CIRCUMSTANCE BY WHICH THEIR

ACCURACY MIGHT BE AFFECTED," and where "A MORE THAN USUAL ATTENTION

WAS BESTOWED," it appears, that if we take Captain Sabine's own test,

namely, "the differences of the partial results from the mean at each

station," the deviations become nearly ten times as large as they were

before; a circumstance which might be expected to have some influence in

the decision of the question.

There is, however, another light in which it is impossible to avoid

looking at this singular oversight. The second column of the table of

latitudes must now be considered the true one, as that which really

resulted from the observations. Now, on examining the column of true

latitudes, the differences between the different sets of observations is

so considerable as naturally to excite some fear of latent error, more

especially as nearly the greatest discordance arises from the same star,

Alph.Lyrae, observed after an interval of only three days. It becomes

interesting to every person engaged in making astronomical observations,

to know what is the probability of his being exposed to an error so

little to be guarded against, and so calculated to lull the suspicions

of the unfortunate astronomer to whom it may happen.

In fact, the question resolves itself into this: the true latitude of

a place being determined by sets of observations as in the first of the

following columns--

Latitudes as

True latitudes observed. computed by a mistake

of Capt. Sabine's.

deg.min.sec. deg.min.sec.

Alph.Lyrae, 28th Aug.... 2 31 22.0 2 31 42.4

Alph.Lyrae, 29th Aug.... 31.8 43.8

Alph.Pavonis, 29th Aug... 44,0 44.5

Alph.Lyrae, 31st Aug.... 42.6 44.6

Alph.Cygni, 31st Aug.... 39.2 42.0

Alph.Gruris, 2d Sept.... 27.4 42.2

what are the chances that, by one error all the latitudes in the first

column should be brought so nearly to an agreement as they are in the

second column? The circumstance of the number of divisions of the

level being almost arbitrary within limits, might perhaps be alleged as

diminishing this extraordinary improbability: but let any one consider,

if he choose the error of each set, as independent of the others, still

he will find the odds against it enormous.

When it is considered that an error, almost arbitrary in its law, has

thus had the effect of bringing discordant observations into an almost

unprecedented accordance, as at Maranham; and not merely so, but that

at eight of the nine stations it has uniformly tended to diminish the

differences between the partial results, and that at the ninth station

it only increased it by a small fraction of a second, I cannot help

feeling that it is more probable even that Captain Kater, with all his

admitted skill, and that Captain Sabine himself, should have been both

mistaken in their measures of the divisions of the level, than that so

singular an effect should have been produced by one error; and I cannot

bring myself to believe that such an anticipation is entirely without

foundation.

Whatever may be the result of a re-examination, it was a singular

oversight NOT TO MEASURE the divisions of a level intended to be used

for determining so important a question; more particularly as, in the

very work to which reference was made by Captain Sabine for the purpose

of comparing the observations, it was the very first circumstance which

occupied the French philosophers, and several pages [See pages 265

to 275 of the RECUEIL D'OBSERVATIONS GEODESIQUES, &c. PAR MM. BIOT ET

ARAGO, which forms the fourth volume of the BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE.]

are filled with the details relative to the determination of the value

of the divisions of the level. It would also have been satisfactory,

with such an important object in view, to have read off some of the sets

after each pair of observations, in order to see how far the system of

repetition made the results gradually converge to a limit, and in order

to know how many repetitions were sufficient. Such a course would almost

certainly have led to a knowledge of the true value of the divisions of

the level; for the differences in the altitude of the same star, after a

few minutes of time, must, in many instances, have been far too great to

have arisen from the change of its altitude: and had these been noticed,

they must have been referred to some error in the instrument, which

could scarcely, in such circumstances, have escaped detection.

I have now mentioned a few of the difficulties which attend Captain

Sabine's book on the pendulum, difficulties which I am far from saying

are inexplicable. He would be bold indeed who, after so wonderful an

instance of the effect of chance as I have been just discussing, should

venture to pronounce another such accident impossible; but I think

enough has been said to show, that the feeling which so generally

prevails relative to it, is neither captious nor unreasonable.

Enough also has appeared to prove, that the conduct of the Admiralty in

appointing that gentleman one of their scientific advisers, was, under

the peculiar circumstances, at least, unadvised. They have thus lent, as

far as they could, the weight of their authority to support observations

which are now found to be erroneous. They have thus held up for

imitation observations which may induce hundreds of meritorious officers

to throw aside their instruments, in the despair of ever approaching a

standard which is since admitted to be imaginary; and they have ratified

the doctrine, for I am not aware their official adviser has ever

even modified it, that diminutive instruments are equal almost to the

largest.

To what extent this doctrine is correct, may perhaps yet admit of doubt.

It cannot, however, admit of a doubt, that it is unwise to crown it with

official authority, and thus expose the officers of their service to

depend on means which may be quite insufficient for their purpose.

How the Board of Longitude, after EXPRESSLY DIRECTING THIS INSTRUMENT

TO BE MADE AND TRIED, could come to the decision at which they arrived,

appears inexplicable. The known difference of opinion amongst the best

observers respecting the repeating principle, ought to have rendered

them peculiarly cautious, nor ought the opinion of a Troughton, that

instruments of less than one foot in diameter may be considered,

"FOR ASTRONOMY, AS LITTLE BETTER THAN PLAYTHINGS," [Memoirs of the

Astronomical Society, Vol.I. p.53.] to have been rejected without the

most carefully detailed experiments. There were amongst that body,

persons who must have examined minutely the work on the Pendulum.

Captain Kater must have felt those difficulties in the perusal of it

which other observers have experienced; and he who was placed in the

Board of Longitude especially for his knowledge of instruments, might,

in a few hours, have arrived at more decisive facts. But perhaps I am

unjust. Captain Kater's knowledge rendered it impossible for him to have

been ignorant of the difficulties, and his candour would have prevented

him from concealing them: he must, therefore, after examining the

subject, have been outvoted by his lay-brethren who had dispensed with

that preliminary.

It would be unjust, before quitting this subject, not to mention with

respect the acknowledgment made by an officer of the naval service of

the errors into which he also fell from this same level. Lieutenant

Foster, aware of the many occasions on which Captain Sabine had employed

this instrument, and knowing that he considered each division as equal

to one second, never thought that a doubt could exist on the subject,

and made all his calculations accordingly. When Captain Kater made him

acquainted with the mistake, Lieutenant Foster immediately communicated

a paper [The paper of Lieutenant Foster is printed in the Philosophical

Transactions, 1827, p.122, and is worth consulting.] to the Royal

Society, in which he states the circumstance most fully, and recomputed

all the observations in which that instrument was used. Unfortunately,

from the original observations of Mr. Ross being left on board the Fury

at the time of her loss, the transcripts of his results could not be

recomputed like the rest, and were consequently useless.

SECTION 5. OF THE UNION OF SEVERAL OFFICES IN ONE PERSON.

Although the number of situations to which persons conversant with

science may hope to be appointed, is small, yet it has somewhat

singularly happened, that instances of one individual, holding more than

one such appointment, are frequent. Not to speak of those held by the

late Dr. Young, we have at present:--

MR. POND--Astronomer Royal, Inspector of Chronometers, and

Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac.

CAPTAIN SABINE--An officer of artillery on leave of absence from his

regiment; Secretary of the Royal Society; and Scientific Adviser of the

Admiralty.

MR. BRANDE--Clerk of the Irons at the Royal Mint; Professor of Chemistry

at the Royal Institution; Analyser of Rough Nitre, &c. to the East-India

Company; Lecturer on Materia Medica, Apothecaries' Hall; Superintending

Chemical Operator at ditto; Lecturer on Chemistry at ditto; Editor

of the Royal Institution Journal; and Foreign Secretary to the Royal

Society.

One should be led to imagine, from these unions of scientific offices,

either that science is too little paid, and that gentlemen cannot be

found to execute the offices separately at the salaries offered;

or else, that it is too well paid, since each requires such little

attention, that almost any number can be executed by one person.

The Director of the Royal Observatory has a larger and better collection

of instruments, and more assistants to superintend, than any other

astronomer in the world; and, to do it properly, would require the

almost undivided attention of a man in the vigour of youth. Nor would

a superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, if he made a point of being

acquainted with every thing connected with his subject, find his

situation at all a sinecure. Slight as are the duties of the Foreign

Secretary of the Royal Society, it might have been supposed that Mr.

Brande would scarcely, amongst his multifarious avocations, have found

time even for them. But it may be a consolation to him to know, that

from the progress the Society is making, those duties must become

shortly, if they are not already, almost extinct.

Doubtless the President, in making that appointment, looked most

anxiously over the list of the Royal Society. He doubtless knew that the

Academics of Sweden, of Denmark, of Scotland, of Prussia, of

Hanover, and of France, derived honour from the discoveries of their

Secretaries;--that they prided themselves in the names of Berzelius, of

Oersted, of Brewster, of Encke, of Gauss, and of Cuvier. Doubtless the

President must have been ambitious that England should contribute to

this galaxy of glory, that the Royal Society should restore the lost

Pleiad [Pleiades, an assemblage of seven stars in the neck of the

constellation Taurus. There are now only six of them visible to the

naked eye.--HUTTON'S DICTIONARY--Art. Pleiades.] to the admiring science

of Europe. But he could discover no kindred name amongst the ranks of

his supporters, and forgot, for a moment, the interest of the Society,

in an amiable consideration for the feelings of his surrounding friends.

For had the President chosen a brighter star, the lustre of his other

officers might have been overpowered by its splendour: but relieved

from the pain of such a contrast, he may still retain the hope, that,

by their united brightness, these suns of his little system shall yet

afford sufficient light to be together visible to distant nations, as a

faint NEBULA in the obscure horizon of English science.

SECTION 6. OF THE FUNDS OF THE SOCIETY.

Although the Society is not in a state approaching to poverty, it may be

useful to offer a few remarks respecting the distribution of its money.

EXPENSE OF ENGRAVINGS FOR SIR E. HOME'S PAPERS.--The great expense

of the engravings which adorn the volumes of the Philosophical

Transactions, is not sufficiently known. That many of those engravings

are quite essential for the papers they illustrate, and that those

papers are fit for the Transactions, I do not doubt; but, some inquiry

is necessary, when such large sums are expended. I shall endeavour,

therefore, to approximate to the sum these engravings have cost the

Royal Society.

Previous to 1810, there are upwards of seventy plates to papers of

Sir E. Home's; in many of these, which I have purposely separated, the

workmanship is not so minute as in the succeeding ones. Since 1810,

there have occurred 187 plates attached to papers of the same author.

Many of these have cost from twelve to twenty guineas each plate; but

I shall take five pounds as the average cost of the first portion, and

twelve as that of the latter. This would produce,

70 X 5 = 350

187 X 12 = 2244

...... -----...... L2594

As this is only proposed as a rough approximation, let us omit the odd

hundreds, and we have two thousand pounds expended in plates only on ONE

branch of science, and for one person! Without calling in question

the importance of the discoveries contained in those papers, it may be

permitted to doubt whether such a large sum might not have been expended

in a manner more beneficial to science. Not being myself conversant with

those subjects, I can only form an opinion of the value from extraneous

circumstances. Had their importance been at all equal to their number,

I should have expected to have heard amongst the learned of other

countries much more frequent mention of them than I have done, and even

the Council of the Royal Society would scarcely have excluded from

their Transactions one of those productions which they had paid for as a

lecture.

It might also have been more delicate not to have placed on the Council

so repeatedly a gentleman, for whose engravings they were annually

expending, during the last twenty years, about an hundred pounds. On

the other hand, when the Council lent Sir E. Home the whole of

those valuable plates to take off impressions for his large work on

Comparative Anatomy, of which they constitute almost the whole, it might

have been as well not to have obliterated from each plate all indication

of the source to which he was indebted for them.

THE PRESIDENT'S DISCOURSES.--I shall mention this circumstance, because

it fell under my own observation.

Observing in the annual accounts a charge of 381L 5s. for the

President's Speeches, I thought it right to inquire into the nature

of this item. Happening to be on the Council the next year, I took an

opportunity, at an early meeting of that Council, to ask publicly for

an explanation of the following resolution, which stands in the

Council-books for Dec. 21, 1828.

"Resolved, That 500 copies of the President's Discourses, about to be

printed by Mr. Murray, be purchased by the Society, at the usual trade

price."

The answer given to that question was, "THAT THE COUNCIL HAD AGREED TO

PURCHASE THESE VOLUMES AT THAT PRICE, IN ORDER TO INDUCE MR. MURRAY TO

PRINT THE PRESIDENT'S SPEECHES."

I remarked at the time that such an answer was quite unsatisfactory, as

the following statement will prove.

The volume consists of 160 pages, or twenty sheets, and the following

prices are very liberal:

L s. d.

To composing and printing twenty sheets, at

3L. per sheet............... 60 0 0

Twenty reams of paper, at 3L. per ream..... 60 0 0

Corrections, alterations, &c.......... 30 0 0

Total cost of 500 copies...... 150 0 0

Now upon the subject of the expense of printing, the Council could not

plead ignorance. The Society are engaged in printing, and in paying

printers' bills, too frequently to admit of such an excuse; and several

of the individual members must have known, from their own private

experience, that the cost of printing such a volume was widely different

from that they were about to pay, as an inducement to a bookseller to

print it on his own account. Here, then, was a sum of above two hundred

pounds beyond what was necessary for the object, taken from the funds

of the Royal Society; and for what purpose? Did the President and his

officers ever condescend to explain this transaction to the Council;

or were they expected, as a matter of course, to sanction any thing

proposed to them? Could they have been so weak, or so obedient, as to

order the payment of above three hundred and eighty pounds, to induce a

bookseller to do what they might have done themselves for less than half

the sum? Or did they wish to make Mr. Murray a present of two hundred

pounds? If so, he must have had powerful friends in the Council, and it

is fit the Society should know who they were; for they were not friends,

either to its interests or to its honour.

The copies, so purchased, were ordered by the Council to be sold to

members of the Society at 15s. each: (the trade price is 15s. 3d.) and

out of the five hundred copies twenty-seven only have been sold: the

remainder encumber our shelves. Thus, after four years, the Society are

still losers of three hundred and sixty Pounds on this transaction.

ON THE CONVERSION OF THE GREENWICH OBSERVATIONS INTO

PASTEBOARD.--Although the printing of these observations is not paid for

out of the funds of the Royal Society, yet as the Council of that body

are the visitors of the Royal Observatory, it may not be misplaced to

introduce the subject here.

Some years since, a member of the Royal Society accidentally learned,

that there was, at an old store-shop in Thames Street, a large quantity

of the volumes of the Greenwich Observations on sale as waste paper. On

making inquiry, he ascertained that there were two tons and a half to be

disposed of, and that an equal quantity had already been sold, for the

purpose of converting it into pasteboard. The vendor said he could get

fourpence a pound for the whole, and that it made capital Bristol board.

The fact was mentioned by a member of the Council of the Royal Society,

and they thought it necessary to inquire into the circumstances.

Now, the Observations made at the Royal Observatory are printed with

every regard to typographical luxury, with large margins, on thick

paper, hotpressed, and with no sort of regard to economy. This

magnificence is advocated by some who maintain, that the volumes ought

to be worthy of a great nation; whilst others, seeing how little that

nation spends on science, regret that the sums allotted to it should not

be applied with the strictest economy. If the Astronomer Royal really

has a right to these volumes, printed by the government at a large

expense, it is, perhaps, the most extravagant mode which was ever

yet invented of paying a public servant. When that right was given to

him,--let us suppose somebody had suggested the impolicy of it, lest he

should sell the costly volumes for waste paper,--who would have listened

for one moment to such a supposition? He would have been told that

it was impossible to suppose a person in that high and responsible

situation, could be so indifferent to his own reputation.

A short time since, I applied to the President and Council of the Royal

Society, for copies of the Greenwich Observations, which were necessary

for an inquiry on which I was at that time engaged. Being naturally

anxious to economize the small funds I can devote to science, the

request appeared to me a reasonable one. It was, however, refused; and

I was at the same time informed that the Observations could be purchased

at the bookseller's. [This was a mistake; Mr. Murray has not copies

of the Greenwich Observations prior to 1823.] When I consider that

practical astronomy has not occupied a very prominent place in my

pursuits, I feel disposed, on that ground, to acquiesce in the propriety

of the refusal. This excuse can, however, be of no avail for similar

refusals to other gentlemen, who applied nearly at the same time with

myself, and whose time had been successfully devoted to the cultivation

of that science. [M. Bessel, at the wish of the Royal Academy of Berlin,

projected a plan for making a very extensive map of the heavens. Too

vast for any individual to attempt, it was proposed that a portion

should be executed by the astronomers of various countries, and

invitations to this effect were widely circulated. One only of the

divisions of this map was applied for by any English astronomer; and,

after completing the portion of the map assigned to him, he undertook

another, which had remained unprovided for. This gentleman, the Rev.

Mr. Hussey, was one of the rejected applicants for the Greenwich

Observations.]

There was, however, another ground on which I had weakly anticipated a

different result;--but those who occupy official situations, rendered

remarkable by the illustrious names of their predecessors, are placed

in no enviable station; and, if their own acquirements are confessedly

insufficient to keep up the high authority of their office, they

must submit to the mortifications of their false position. I am sure,

therefore, that the President and officers of the Royal Society must

have sympathized MOST DEEPLY with me, when they felt it their duty to

propose that the Society over which Newton once presided, should refuse

so trifling an assistance to the unworthy possessor of the chair he once

filled.

In reply to my application to the President and Council, to be allowed a

copy of the Greenwich Observations, I was informed that, "The number of

copies placed by government at the disposal of the Royal Society, was

insufficient to supply the demands made on them by various learned

bodies in Europe; and, consequently, they were unable, however great

their inclination, to satisfy the wishes of individual applicants."

Now I have spent some time in searching the numerous proceedings in the

council-books of the Royal Society, and I believe the following is the

real state of the case:--

In 1785, Lord Sidney, one of His Majesty's principal Secretaries of

State, wrote to the Council a letter, dated Whitehall, March 8, 1785,

from which the following is extracted:--

"The King has been pleased to consent, that any copies of the

Astronomical Observations, made at the Observatory of Greenwich, (and

paid for by the Board of Ordnance, pursuant to His Majesty's command,

of July 21, 1767,) which may at any time remain in the hands of the

printer, shall, after you have reserved such copies as you may

think proper as presents, be given to the said Nevil Maskelyne, in

consideration of his trouble in the superintending the printing thereof.

I am to signify His Majesty's pleasure, that you do, from time to time,

give the necessary orders for that purpose, until His Majesty's further

commands shall be communicated to you.

Soon after this letter, I find on the council-books:--

"Ordered, That sixty copies of the Greenwich Observations, last

published, be retained as presents, and that the rest be delivered to

the Astronomer Royal."

It is difficult to be sure of a negative fact, but in searching many

volumes of the Proceedings of the Council, I have not discovered any

revocation of this order, and I believe none exists. This is confirmed

by the circumstance of the Council at the present day receiving

precisely the same number of copies as their predecessors, and I believe

that in fact they do not know the authority on which the right to those

sixty rests.

Supposing this order unrevoked, it was clearly meant to be left to the

discretion of the Council, to order such a number to be reserved, "from

time to time," as the demands of science might require. When, therefore,

they found that the number of sixty copies was insufficient, they ought

to have directed the printer to send them a larger number; but when they

found out the purpose to which the Astronomer Royal applied them, they

ought immediately to have ordered nearly the whole impression, in order

to prevent this destruction of public property. If, on the other hand,

the above order is revoked, and we really have no right to more than

sixty copies; then, on discovering the Observations in their progress

towards pasteboard, it was the duty of the Council of the Royal Society,

as visitors of the Royal Observatory, immediately to have represented to

Government the evil of the arrangement, and to have suggested, that if

the Astronomer Royal have the right, it would be expedient to commute it

for a liberal compensation.

Whichever be the true view of the case, they have taken no steps on the

subject; and I cannot help expressing my belief, that the President and

Council were induced to be thus negligent of the interests of science,

from the fear of interfering with the perquisites of the Astronomer

Royal.

It is, however, but justice to observe, that the injury already done to

science, by the conversion of these Observations into pasteboard, is not

so great as the public might have feared. Mr. Pond, than whom no one can

be supposed better acquainted with their value, and whose right to

judge no man can question, has shown his own opinion to be, that his

reputation will be best consulted by diminishing the extent of their

circulation.

Before I quit the subject of the Royal Observatory, on which much might

be said, I will just refer to the report by a Committee of the Royal

Society that was made relative to it, some years since, and which, it is

imagined, is a subject by no means grateful to the memory of any of

the parties concerned in it. My object is to ascertain, whether any

amendments have taken place in consequence. To one fact of considerable

importance, I was myself a witness, when I was present officially at a

visitation. At that time, no original observations made at the transit

instrument were ever preserved. Had I not been an eye witness of the

process of an observation, I should not have credited the fact.

SECTION 7. OF THE ROYAL MEDALS.

At a period when the attention of Government to science had not

undergone any marked change, a most unexpected occurrence took place.

His Majesty intimated to the Royal Society, through his Secretary of

State, his intention to found two gold medals, of the value of fifty

guineas each, to be awarded annually by the Council of the Royal

Society, according to the rules they were desired to frame for that

purpose.

The following is the copy of Mr. Peel's letter:--

WHITEHALL, December 3d, 1825.

SIR,

I am commanded by the King to acquaint you, that His Majesty proposes to

found two gold medals, of the value of fifty guineas each, to be awarded

as honorary premiums, under the direction of the President and Council

of the Royal Society, in such a manner as shall, by the excitement of

competition among men of science, seem best calculated to promote the

object for which the Royal Society was instituted.

His Majesty desires to receive from the President and Council of

the Royal Society their opinion upon the subject generally of the

regulations which it may be convenient to establish with regard to the

appropriation of the medals; and I have, therefore, to request that

you will make the necessary communication to the Council of the Royal

Society, in order that His Majesty's wishes may be carried into effect.

I have the honour to be, &c. &c. (Signed) R. PEEL.

Nothing could be more important for the interests of science, than this

gracious manifestation of His Majesty's concern for its advancement. It

was hailed by all who were made acquainted with it, as the commencement

of a new era, and the energies which it might have awakened were

immense. The unfettered nature of the gift excited admiration, whilst

the confidence reposed in the Council was calculated to have insured

the wavering faith of any less-gifted body. Even those who, either from

knowing the MANAGEMENT of the Society, or from other grounds, doubted

the policy of establishing medals, saw much to admire in the tone and

spirit in which they were offered.

The Council immediately came to the resolution of gratefully accepting

them: and it appears that the President communicated that resolution, on

the 26th, to Mr. Peel, in a letter, which is found on the minutes of the

Council-book of the 26th of January.

At the same Council, the rules for the award of the Royal medals were

decided upon; they were as follow:--

26th January, 1826.

RESOLVED,

That it is the opinion of the Council, that the medals be awarded for

the most important discoveries or series of investigations, completed

and made known to the Royal Society in the year preceding the day of

their award.

That it is the opinion of the Council, that the presentation of the

medals should not be limited to British subjects. And they propose, if

it should be His Majesty's pleasure, that his effigy should form the

obverse of the medal.

That two medals from the same die should be struck upon each foundation;

one in gold, one in silver.

If these rules are not the wisest which might have been formed, yet

they are tolerably explicit; and it might have been imagined that even a

councillor of the Royal Society, prepared for office by the education

of a pleader, could not have mystified his brethren so completely, as

to have made them doubt on the point of time. The rules fixed precisely,

that the discoveries or experiments rewarded, must be completed and made

known to the Royal Society, within the YEAR PRECEDING THE DAY of the

award.

Perhaps it might have been a proper mark of respect to this

communication, to have convened a special general meeting of the

Society, to have made known to the whole body the munificent endowment

of their Patron: and when his approbation of the laws which were to

govern the distribution of these medals had been intimated to the

Council, such a course would have been in complete accordance with the

wish expressed in Mr. Peel's letter, "TO EXCITE COMPETITION AMONGST MEN

OF SCIENCE" by making them generally known.

Let us now examine the first award of these medals: it is recorded in

the following words:--

November 16, 1826.

ONE of the medals of His Majesty's donation for the present year was

awarded to John Dalton, Esq. President of the Philosophical and Literary

Society, Manchester, for his development of the Atomic Theory, and his

other important labours and discoveries in physical science.

The other medal for the present year was awarded to James Ivory,

Esq. for his paper on Astronomical Refractions, published in the

Philosophical Transactions for the year 1823, and his other valuable

papers on mathematical subjects.

The Copley medal was awarded to James South, Esq. for his observations

of double stars, and his paper on the discordances between the sun's

observed and computed right ascensions, published in the Transactions.

It is difficult to believe that the same Council, which, in January,

formed the laws for the distribution of these medals, should meet

together in November, and in direct violation of these laws, award them

to two philosophers, one of whom had made, and fully established, his

great discovery almost twenty years before; and the other of whom (to

stultify themselves still more effectually) they expressly rewarded for

a paper made known to them three years before.

Were the rules for the award of these medals read previous to their

decision? Or were the obedient Council only used to register the edict

of their President? Or were they mocked, as they have been in other

instances, with the semblance of a free discussion?

Has it never occurred to gentlemen who have been thus situated, that

although they have in truth had no part in the decision, yet the Society

and the public will justly attribute a portion of the merit or demerit

of their award, to those to whom that trust was confided?

Did no one member of the Council venture, with the most submissive

deference, to suggest to the President, that the public eye would watch

with interest this first decision on the Royal medals, and that it

might perhaps be more discreet to adjudge them, for the first time, in

accordance with the laws which had been made for their distribution? Or

was public opinion then held in supreme contempt? Was it scouted, as I

have myself heard it scouted, in the councils of the Royal Society?

Or was the President exempt, on this occasion, from the responsibility

of dictating an award in direct violation of the faith which had been

pledged to the Society and to the public? and, did the Council, intent

on exercising a power so rarely committed to them; and, perhaps,

urged by the near approach of their hour of dinner, dispense with the

formality of reading the laws on which they were about to act?

Whatever may have been the cause, the result was most calamitous to the

Society. Its decision was attacked on other grounds; for, with a strange

neglect, the Council had taken no pains to make known, either to the

Society, or to the public, the rules they had made for the adjudication

of these medals.

The evils resulting from this decision were many. In the first place, it

was most indecorous and ungrateful to treat with such neglect the rules

which had been approved by our Royal Patron. In the next place, the

medals themselves became almost worthless from this original taint: and

they ceased to excite "competition amongst men of science," because no

man could feel the least security that he should get them, even though

his discoveries should fulfil all the conditions on which they were

offered,

The great injury which accrued to science from this proceeding, induced

me, in the succeeding session, when I found myself on the Council of

the Royal Society, to endeavour to remove the stigma which rested on

our character. Whether I took the best means to remedy the evil is now

a matter of comparatively little consequence: had I found any serious

disposition to set it right, I should readily have aided in any plans

for doing that which I felt myself bound to attempt, even though I

should stand alone, as I had the misfortune of doing on that occasion.

[It is but justice to Mr. South, who was a member of that Council, to

state, that the circumstance of his having had the Copley medal of the

same year awarded to him, prevented him from taking any part in the

discussion.]

The impression which the whole of that discussion made on my mind

will never be effaced. Regarding the original rules formed for the

distribution of the Royal medals, when approved by his Majesty, as

equally binding in honour and in justice, I viewed the decision of the

Council, which assigned those medals to Mr. Dalton and Mr. Ivory, as

void, IPSO FACTO, on the ground that it was directly at variance with

that part which CONFINES the medals to discoveries made known to the

Society within ONE YEAR PREVIOUS TO THE DAY OF THEIR AWARD. I therefore

moved the following resolutions:

"1st, That the award of the Royal medals, made on the 16th of November,

1826, being contrary to the conditions under which they were offered, is

invalid.

"2dly, That the sum of fifty guineas each be presented to J. Dalton,

Esq. and James Ivory, Esq. from the funds of the Society; and that

letters be written to each of those gentlemen, expressing the hope

of the Council that this, the only method which is open to them of

honourably fulfilling their pledges, will be received by those gentlemen

as a mark of the high sense entertained by the Council of the importance

and value of their discoveries, which require not the aid of medals

to convey their reputation to posterity, as amongst the greatest which

distinguished the age in which they lived."

It may be curious to give the public a specimen of the reasoning

employed in so select a body of philosophers as the Council of the Royal

Society. It was contended, on the one hand, that although the award was

SOMEWHAT IRREGULAR, yet nothing was more easy than to set it right. As

the original rules for giving the medals were merely an order of the

Council,--it would only be necessary to alter them, and then the

award would agree perfectly with the laws. On the other hand, it was

contended, that the original rules were unknown to the public and to the

Society; and that, in fact, they were only known to the members of

the Council and a few of their friends; and therefore the award was no

breach of faith.

All comment on such reasoning is needless. That such propositions could

not merely be offered, but could pass unreproved, is sufficient to show

that the feelings of that body do not harmonize with those of the age;

and furnishes some explanation why several of the most active members of

the Royal Society have declined connecting their names with the Council

as long as the present system of management is pursued.

The little interest taken by the body of the Society, either in its

peculiar pursuits, or in the proceedings of the Council, and the little

communication which exists between them, is an evil. Thus it happens

that the deeds of the Council are rarely known to the body of the

Society, and, indeed, scarcely extend beyond that small portion who

frequent the weekly meetings. These pages will perhaps afford the first

notice to the great majority of the Society of a breach of faith by

their Council, which it is impossible to suppose a body, consisting of

more than six hundred gentlemen, could have sanctioned.

SECTION 8. OF THE COPLEY MEDALS.

An important distinction exists between scientific communications, which

seems to have escaped the notice of the Councils of the Royal Society.

They may contain discoveries of new principles,--of laws of nature

hitherto unobserved; or they may consist of a register of observations

of known phenomena, made under new circumstances, or in new and peculiar

situations on the face of our planet. Both these species of additions to

our knowledge are important; but their value and their rarity are very

different in degree. To make and to repeat observations, even with those

trifling alterations, which it is the fashion in our country (in the

present day) to dignify with the name of discoveries, requires merely

inflexible candour in recording precisely the facts which nature has

presented, and a power of fixing the attention on the instruments

employed, or phenomena examined,--a talent, which can be much improved

by proper Instruction, and which is possessed by most persons of

tolerable abilities and education.* To discover new principles, and to

detect the undiscovered laws by which nature operates, is another and

a higher task, and requires intellectual qualifications of a very

different order: the labour of the one is like that of the computer of

an almanac; the inquiries of the other resemble more the researches of

the accomplished analyst, who has invented the formula: by which those

computations are performed.

[*That the use even of the large astronomical instruments in a national

observatory, does not require any very profound acquirements, is not

an opinion which I should have put forth without authority. The

Astronomer-Royal ought to be the best judge.

On the minutes of the Council of the Royal Society, for April 6, 1826,

with reference to the Assistants necessary for the two mural circles,

we find a letter from Mr. Pond on the subject, from which the following

passage is extracted:

"But to carry on such investigations, I want indefatigable,

hard-working, and above all, obedient drudges (for so I must call

them, although they are drudges of a superior order), men who will be

contented to pass half their day in using their hands and eyes in the

mechanical act of observing, and the remainder of it in the dull process

of calculation."]

Such being the distinction between the merits of these inquiries, some

difference ought to exist in the nature of any rewards that may be

proposed for their encouragement. The Royal Society have never marked

this difference, and consequently those honorary medals which are given

to observations, gain a value which is due to those that are given for

discoveries; whilst these latter are diminished in their estimation by

such an association.

I have stated this distinction, because I think it a just one; but the

public would have little cause of complaint if this were the only ground

of objection to the mode of appropriating the Society's medals. The

first objection to be noticed, is the indistinct manner in which the

object for which the medals are awarded is sometimes specified. A medal

is given to A. B. "for his various papers."

There are cases, few perhaps in number, where such a reason may be

admissible; but it is impossible not to perceive the weakness of those

who judge these matters legibly written in the phrase, "and for his

various other communications," which comes in as the frequent tail-piece

to these awards. With a diffidence in their own powers, which might be

more admired if it were more frequently expressed, the Council think to

escape through this loop-hole, should the propriety of their judgment

on the main point be called in question. Thus, even the discovery which

made chemistry a science, has attached to it in their award this feeble

appendage.

It has been objected to the Royal Society, that their medals have been

too much confined to a certain set. When the Royal medals were added to

their patronage, the past distribution of the Copley medals, furnished

grounds to some of the journals to predict the future possessors of

the new ones. I shall, doubtless, be told that the Council of the Royal

Society are persons of such high feeling, that it is impossible to

suppose their decision could be influenced by any personal motives. As I

may not have had sufficient opportunities, during the short time I was

a member of that Council, to enable me to form a fair estimate, I shall

avail myself of the judgment of one, from whom no one will be inclined

to appeal, who knew it long and intimately, and who expressed his

opinion deliberately and solemnly.

The late Dr. Wollaston attached, as a condition to be observed in the

distribution of the interest of his munificent gift of 2,000L. to the

Royal Society, the following clause:--"And I hereby empower the said

President, Council, and Fellows, after my decease, in furtherance of the

above declared objects of the trust, to apply the said dividends to aid

or reward any individual or individuals of any country, SAVING ONLY

THAT NO PERSON BEING A MEMBER OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE TIME BEING, SHALL

RECEIVE OR PARTAKE OF SUCH REWARD."

Another improvement which might be suggested, is, that it is generally

inexpedient to vote a medal until the paper which contains the discovery

is at least read to the Society; perhaps even it might not be quite

unreasonable to wish that it should have been printed, and consequently

have been perused by some few of those who have to decide on its merits.

These trifles have not always been attended to; and even so lately as

the last year, they escaped the notice of the President and his Council.

The Society was, however, indebted to the good sense of Mr. Faraday, who

declined the proffered medal; and thus relieved us from one additional

charge of precipitancy. [When this hasty adjudication was thus put

a stop to, one of the members of the Council inquired, whether, as a

Copley medal must by the will be annually given, some other person might

not be found deserving of it. To which the Secretary replied, "We do

not intend to give any this year." All further discussion was thus

silenced.]

Perhaps, also, as the Council are on some occasions apt to be oblivious,

it might be convenient that the President should read, previously to the

award of any medals or to the decision of any other important subjects,

the statutes relating to them. He might perhaps propitiate their

attention to them, by stating, HOW MUCH IT IMPORTETH TO THE CONSISTENCY

OF THE COUNCIL TO BE ACQUAINTED WITH THE LAWS ON WHICH THEY ARE ABOUT TO

DECIDE.

If those who have been conversant with the internal management of the

Council, would communicate their information, something curious might

perhaps be learned respecting a few of these medals. Concerning those

of which I have had good means of information, I shall merely state--of

three of them--that whatever may have been the official reasons for

their award, I had ample reasons to convince me of the following being

the true causes:--

First.--A medal was given to A, at a peculiarly inappropriate

time--BECAUSE HE HAD NOT HAD ONE BEFORE.

Second.--Subsequently a medal was given to B, in order TO DESTROY THE

IMPRESSION WHICH THE AWARD OF THE MEDAL TO A HAD MADE ON THE PUBLIC THE

PRECEDING YEAR.

Third.--A medal was given to C, "BECAUSE WE THINK HE HAS BEEN ILL USED."

I will now enter on an examination of one of their awards, which

was peculiarly injudicious. I allude to that concerning the mode of

rendering platina malleable. Respecting, as I did, the illustrious

philosopher who invented the art, and who has left many other claims

to the gratitude of mankind, I esteem it no disrespect to his memory to

place that subject in its proper light.

An invention in science or in art, may justly be considered as

possessing the rights of property in the highest degree. The lands

we inherit from our fathers, were cultivated ere they were born, and

yielded produce before they were cultivated. The products of genius are

the actual creations of the individual; and, after yielding profit or

honour to him, they remain the permanent endowments of the human race.

If the institutions of our country, and the opinions of society, support

us fully in the absolute disposal of our fields, of which we can, by

the laws of nature, be only the transitory possessors, who shall justly

restrict our discretion in the disposal of those richer possessions, the

products of intellectual exertion?

Two courses are open to those individuals who are thus endowed with

Nature's wealth. They may lock up in their own bosoms the mysteries they

have penetrated, and by applying their knowledge to the production of

some substance in demand in commerce, thus minister to the wants or

comforts of their species, whilst they reap in pecuniary profit the

legitimate reward of their exertions.

It is open to them, on the other hand, to disclose the secret they have

torn from Nature, and by allowing mankind to participate with them, to

claim at once that splendid reputation which is rarely refused to the

inventors of valuable discoveries in the arts of life.

The two courses are rarely compatible, only indeed when the discoverer,

having published his process, enters into equal competition with other

manufacturers.

If an individual adopt the first of these courses, and retaining his

secret, it perish with him, the world have no right to complain. During

his life, they profited by his knowledge, and are better off than if the

philosopher had not existed.

Monopolies, under the name of patents, have been devised to assist and

reward those who have chosen the line of pecuniary profit. Honorary

rewards and medals have been the feeble expressions of the sentiments

of mankind towards those who have preferred the other course. But these

have been, and should always be, kept completely distinct. [It is a

condition with the Society of Arts, never to give a reward to any thing

for which a patent has been, or is to be, taken out.]

Let us now consider the case of platina. A new process was discovered of

rendering it malleable, and the mere circumstance of so large a quantity

having been sent into the market, was a positive benefit, of no ordinary

magnitude, to many of the arts. The discoverer of this valuable process

selected that course for which no reasonable man could blame him;

and from some circumstance, or perhaps from accident, he preserved no

written record of the manipulations. Had Providence appointed for that

disorder, which terminated too fatally, a more rapid career, all the

knowledge he had acquired from the long attention he had devoted to the

subject, would have been lost to mankind. The hand of a friend recorded

the directions of the expiring philosopher, whose anxiety to render

useful even his unfinished speculations, proves that the previous

omission was most probably accidental.

Under such circumstances it was published to the world in the

Transactions of the Royal Society. But what could induce that body

to bestow on it their medal? To talk of adding lustre to the name of

Wollaston by their medal, is to talk idly. They must have done it then

as an example, as a stimulus to urge future inquiries in the career of

discovery. But did they wish discoveries to be so endangered?

The discoveries of Professor Mitscherlick, of Berlin, had long been

considered, by a few members of the Society, as having strong claims on

one of its honorary rewards; but difficulties had arisen, from so few

members of the Council having any knowledge of discoveries which had

long been familiar to Europe. The Council were just on the point of

doing justice to the merits of the Prussian philosopher, when it was

suggested that its medal should be given to Dr. Wollaston, and they

immediately altered their intention, and thus enabled themselves to

reserve their medal to Professor Mitscherlick for another year; at

which period, for aught they knew, his discoveries might possess the

additional merit of having been made prior to the limit allowed by their

regulations. That medal was, in fact, voted at a meeting, at which no

one member present was at all conversant with the subjects rewarded. I

shall, however, say no more on this subject. They erred from feeling,

an error so very rare with them, that it might be pardoned even for its

singularity.

I will, however, add one word to those whose censures have been unjustly

dealt, to those who have reproached the philosopher for receiving

pecuniary advantage from his inventions.

Amongst the many and varied contrivances for the demands of science,

or the arts of life, with which we were enriched by the genius of

Wollaston, was it too much to allow him to retain, during his fleeting

career, one out of the multitude, to furnish that: pecuniary supply,

without which, the man will want food for his body, and the philosopher

be destitute of tools for his inventions? Had he been, as, from the rank

he held in science, he certainly would have been in other kingdoms, rich

in the honours his country could bestow, and receiving from her a reward

in some measure commensurate with his deserts,--then, indeed, there

might have been reason for that reproach; but I am convinced that,

in such circumstances, the philosopher would have balanced, with no

"niggard" hand, the claims of his country, and would have given to it,

unreservedly, the produce of his powerful mind.

SECTION 9. OF THE FAIRCHILD LECTURE.

Mr. Fairchild left by will twenty-five pounds to the Royal Society. This

was increased by several subscriptions, and 100L. 3 per cent. South

Sea Annuities was purchased, the interest of which was to be devoted

annually to pay for a sermon to be preached at St.Leonard's, Shoreditch.

Few members of the Society, perhaps, are aware, either of the bequest or

of its annual payment. I shall merely observe, that for five years,

from 1800 to 1804, it was regularly given to Mr. Ascough; and that for

twenty-six years past, it has been as regularly given to the Rev. Mr.

Ellis.

The annual amount is too trifling to stimulate to any extraordinary

exertions; yet, small as it is, it might, if properly applied, be

productive of much advantage to religion, and of great honour to the

Society. For this purpose, it would be desirable that it should be

delivered at some church or chapel, more likely to be attended by

members of the Royal Society. Notice of it should be given at the place

of worship appointed, at least a week previous to its delivery, and at

the two preceding weekly meetings of the Royal Society. The name of the

gentleman nominated for that year, and the church at which the sermon is

to be preached, should be stated.

With this publicity attending it, and by a judicious selection of the

first two or three gentlemen appointed to deliver it, it would soon

be esteemed an honour to be invited to compose such a lecture, and the

Society might always find in its numerous list of members or aspirants,

persons well qualified to fulfil a task as beneficial for the promotion

of true religion, as it ever must be for the interest of science. I am

tempted to believe that such a course would call forth exertions of the

most valuable character, as well as give additional circulation to what

is already done on that subject.

The geological speculations which have been adduced, perhaps with too

much haste by some, as according with the Mosaic history, and by

others, as inconsistent with its truth, would, if this subject had been

attentively considered, have been allowed to remain until the fullest

and freest inquiry had irrevocably fixed their claim to the character

of indisputable facts. But, I will not press this subject further on

my reader's attention, lest he should think I am myself delivering the

lecture. All that I could have said on this point has been so much more

ably stated by one whose enlightened view of geological science has

taken away some difficulties from its cultivators, and, I hope, removed

a stumbling-block from many respectable individuals, that I should only

weaken by adding to the argument. [I allude to the critique of Dr. Ure's

Geology in the British Review, for July, 1829; an Essay, equally worthy

of a philosopher and a Christian.]

SECTION 10. OF THE CROONIAN LECTURE.

The payment [Three pounds.] for this Lecture, like that of the

preceding, is small. It was instituted by Dr. Croone, for an annual

essay on the subject of Muscular Motion. It is a little to be regretted,

that it should have been so restricted; and perhaps its founder, had he

foreseen the routine into which it has dwindled, might have endeavoured

to preserve it, by affording it a wider range.

By giving it to a variety of individuals, competition might have been

created, and many young anatomists have been induced to direct their

attention to the favourite inquiry of the founder of the Lecture;

but from causes which need not here be traced, this has not been the

custom--one individual has monopolized it year after year, and it seems,

like the Fairchild Lecture, rather to have been regarded as a pension.

There have, however, been some intervals; and we are still under

obligations to those who have supported THE SYSTEM, for not appointing

Sir Everard Home to read the Croonian Lecture twenty years in

SUCCESSION. Had it been otherwise, we might have heard of vested rights.

SECTION 11. OF THE CAUSES OF THE PRESENT STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

The best friends of the Royal Society have long admitted, whilst they

regretted, its declining fame; and even those who support whatever

exists, begin a little to doubt whether it might not possibly be

amended.

The great and leading cause of the present state to which the Royal

Society is reduced, may be traced to years of misrule to which it has

been submitted. In order to understand this, it will be necessary

to explain the nature of that misrule, and the means employed in

perpetuating it.

It is known, that by the statutes, the body of the Society have the

power of electing, annually, their President, Officers, and Council;

and it is also well known, that this is a merely nominal power, and

that printed lists are prepared and put into the hands of the members

on their entering the room, and thus passed into the balloting box. If

these lists were, as in other scientific societies, openly discussed in

the Council, and then offered by them as recommendations to the Society,

little inconvenience would arise; but the fact is, that they are private

nominations by the President, usually without notice, to the Council,

and all the supporters of the system which I am criticizing, endeavour

to uphold the right of this nomination in the President, and prevent or

discourage any alteration.

The Society has, for years, been managed by a PARTY, or COTERIE, or

by whatever other name may be most fit to designate a combination of

persons, united by no expressed compact or written regulations, but who

act together from a community of principles. That each individual has

invariably supported all the measures of the party, is by no means the

case; and whilst instances of opposition amongst them have been very

rare, a silent resignation to circumstances has been the most usual mode

of meeting measures they disapproved. The great object of this, as of

all other parties, has been to maintain itself in power, and to divide,

as far as it could, all the good things amongst its members. It has

usually consisted of persons of very moderate talent, who have had

the prudence, whenever they could, to associate with themselves other

members of greater ability, provided these latter would not oppose the

system, and would thus lend to it the sanction of their name. The party

have always praised each other most highly--have invariably opposed all

improvements in the Society, all change in the mode of management;

and have maintained, that all those who wished for any alteration were

factious; and, when they discovered any symptoms of independence and

inquiry breaking out in any member of the Council, they have displaced

him as soon as they decently could.

Of the arguments employed by those who support the SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT

by which the Royal Society is governed, I shall give a few samples:

refutation is rendered quite unnecessary--juxta-position is

alone requisite. If any member, seeing an improper appointment in

contemplation, or any abuse in the management of the affairs of the

Society continued, raise a voice against it, the ready answer is, Why

should you interfere? it may not be quite the thing you approve; but it

is no affair of yours.--If, on the other hand, it do relate to himself,

the reply is equally ready. It is immediately urged: The question is

of a personal nature; you are the last person who ought to bring it

forward; you are yourself interested. If any member of the Society,

feeling annoyed at the neglect, or hurt by the injuries or insults of

the Council, show signs of remonstrance, it is immediately suggested to

him that he is irritated, and ought to wait until his feelings subside,

and he can judge more coolly on the subject; whilst with becoming

candour they admit the ill-treatment, but urge forbearance. If, after

an interval, when reflection has had ample time to operate, the offence

seems great as at first, or the insult appears unmitigated by any

circumstances on which memory can dwell,--if it is then brought forward,

the immediate answer is, The affair is out of date--the thing is gone

by--it is too late to call in question a transaction so long past. Thus,

if a man is interested personally, he is unfit to question an abuse;

if he is not, is it probable that he will question it? and if,

notwithstanding this, he do so, then he is to be accounted a meddler. If

he is insulted, and complain, he is told to wait until he is cool;

and when that period arrives, he is then told he is too late. If his

remonstrance relates to the alteration of laws which are never referred

to, or only known by their repeated breach, he is told that any

alteration is useless; it is perfectly well known that they are never

adhered to. If it relate to the impolicy of any regulations attaching to

an office, he is immediately answered, that that is a personal question,

in which it is impossible to interfere--the officer, it seems, is

considered to have not merely a vested right to the continuance of every

abuse, but an interest in transmitting it unimpaired to his successors.

In the same spirit I have heard errors of calculation or observation

defended. If small errors occur, it is said that they are too trifling

to be of any importance. If larger errors are pointed out, it is

immediately contended that they can deceive nobody, because of their

magnitude. Perhaps it might be of some use, if the Council would oblige

the world with their SCALE of ERROR, with illustrations from some of the

most RECENT and APPROVED works, and would favour the uninformed with

the orthodox creed upon all grades, from that which baffles the human

faculties to detect, up to that which becomes innocuous from its size.

The offices connected with the Royal Society are few in number, and

their emolument small in amount; but the proper disposition of them

is, nevertheless, of great importance to the Society, and was so to the

science of England.

In the first place, the President, having in effect the absolute

nomination of the whole Council, could each year introduce a few

gentlemen, whose only qualification to sit on it would be the high

opinion they must necessarily entertain of the penetration of him who

could discover their scientific merits. He might also place in the list

a few nobles or officials, just to gild it. Neither of these classes

would put any troublesome questions, and one of them might be employed,

from its station in society, to check any that might be proposed by

others.

With these ingredients, added to the regular train of the party, and a

star or two of science to shed lustre over the whole, a very manageable

Council might be formed; and such has been its frequent composition.

The duties of the Secretaries, when well executed, are laborious,

although not in this respect equal to those of the same officers who, in

several societies, give their gratuitous aid; and their labours are much

lightened by the Assistant Secretary and his clerk. The following are

their salaries:--

The Senior Secretary ........... 105L.

The Junior Secretary, 105L........ )

5L. for making Index to Phil. Trans... ) 110L.

The Foreign Secretary........... 20L.

Now it is not customary to change these annually; and as these offices

are amongst the "loaves and fishes" they are generally given by the

President to some staunch supporters of the system. They have frequently

been bestowed, with very little consideration for the interest, or even

for the dignity of the Society. To notice only one instance: the late

Sir Joseph Banks appointed a gentleman who remained for years in

that situation, although he was confessedly ignorant of every subject

connected with the pursuits of the Society. I will, however, do justice

to his memory, by saying that his respectability was preserved

under such circumstances, by the most candid admission of the fact,

accompanied by a store of other knowledge unfortunately quite foreign to

the pursuits of the Society; and I will add, that I regretted to see him

insulted by one President in a situation improperly given to him by a

former.

Next in order come the Vice-Presidents, who are appointed by the

President; and in this respect the present practice is not inconvenient.

The case, however, is widely different with the office of Treasurer. The

President ought not to usurp the power of his appointment, which ought,

after serious discussion by the Council, to be made by the Society at

large.

Besides the three Secretaries, there is an Assistant Secretary,

and recently another has been added, who may perhaps be called a

Sub-assistant Secretary. All these places furnish patronage to the

President.

Let us now look at the occasional patronage of the President, arising

from offices not belonging to the Society. He is, EX OFFICIO, a Trustee

of the British Museum; and it may seem harsh to maintain that he is not

a fit person to hold such a situation. It is no theoretical view, but it

is the EXPERIENCE of the past which justifies the assertion; and I

fear that unless he has the sole responsibility for some specific

appointments, and unless his judgment is sharpened by the fear of public

discussion, a President of the Royal Society, in the Board-room of the

British Museum, is quite as likely as another person to sacrifice his

public duty to the influence of power, or to private friendship. With

respect to the merits of that Institution, I have no inclination at

present to inquire: but when it is considered that there is at this

moment attached to it no one whose observations or whose writings have

placed him even in the second rank amongst the naturalists of Europe,

the President of the Royal Society has given some grounds for the remark

made by several members of the Society, that he is a little too much

surrounded by the officers of a body who may reasonably be supposed to

entertain towards him feelings either of gratitude or expectation.

[It will be remembered that the name of Mr. Robert Brown has been but

recently attached to the British Museum, and that it is to be attributed

to his possessing a life interest in the valuable collection of the late

Sir Joseph Banks.]

The late Board of Longitude was another source of patronage, which,

although now abolished, it may be useful to hint at.

There were three members to be appointed by the Royal Society: these

were honorary, and, as no salary was attached, it might have been

expected that this limited number of appointments would have been given

in all cases to persons qualified for them. But no: it was convenient

to pay compliments; and Lord Colchester, whose talents and knowledge

insured him respect as Speaker of the House of Commons, or as a

British nobleman, was placed for years in the situation as one of the

Commissioners of the Board of Longitude, for which every competent judge

knew him to be wholly unfit. What was the return which he made for this

indulgence? Little informed respecting the feelings of the Society, and

probably misinformed by the party whose influence had placed him there,

he saved them in the day of their peril.

When the state of the Society had reached such a point that many of

the more scientific members felt that some amendment was absolutely

necessary to its respectability, a committee was formed to suggest to

the Council such improvements as they might consider it expedient to

discuss. [Amongst the names of the persons composing this Committee,

which was proposed by Mr. South, were those of Dr. Wollaston and

Mr. Herschel.] The Council received their report at the close of the

session; and in recording it on the journals, they made an appeal to the

Council for the ensuing year to bestow on it "THEIR EARLIEST AND MOST

SERIOUS ATTENTION."

Now when the party, to whose government some of these improvements would

have been a death-warrant, found that the subject was likely to be taken

up in the Council, they were in dismay: but the learned and grateful

peer came to their assistance, and aided Mr. Davies Gilbert in getting

rid of these improvements completely.

It has been the fashion to maintain that all classes of the Royal

Society should be represented in the Council, and consequently that a

peer or two should find a place amongst them. Those who are most adverse

to this doctrine would perhaps be the most anxious to render this

tribute to any one really employing his time, his talents, or his rank

in advancing the cause of science. But when a nobleman, unversed in our

pursuits, will condescend to use the influence of his station in aiding

a President to stifle, WITHOUT DISCUSSION, propositions recommended

for consideration by some of the most highly gifted members of the

Society,--those who doubt the propriety of the principle may reasonably

be pardoned for the disgust they must necessarily entertain for the

practical abuse to which it leads.

Of the other three Commissioners, who received each a hundred a-year,

although the nomination was, in point of form, in the Admiralty, yet

it was well known that the President of the Royal Society did, in fact,

always name them. Of these I will only mention one fact. The late Sir

Joseph Banks assigned to me as a reason why I need not expect to be

appointed, (as he had held out to me at a former period when I had

spoken to him on the subject) that I had taken a prominent part in the

formation of the ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. I am proud of the part I did take

in establishing that Society, although an undue share of its honour was

assigned to me by the President.

It may, perhaps, be inquired, why I publish this fact at this distance

of time? I answer, that I stated it publicly at the Council of the

Astronomical Society;--that I always talked of it publicly and openly at

the time;--that I purposely communicated it to each succeeding President

of the Royal Society; and that, although some may have forgotten the

communications I made at the time, there are others who remember them

well.

The Secretary of the late Board of Longitude received 300L., and 200L.

more, as Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac.

Another situation, in the patronage of which the President is known to

have considerable influence, is that of Astronomer Royal; and it is

to be observed, that he is kept in the Council as much as possible,

notwithstanding the nature of his duties.

Of the three appointments of 100L. a-year each, which have been

instituted since the abolition of the Board of Longitude, the President

is supposed to have the control, thus making him quite sure of the

obedience of his Council.

Besides these sources of patronage, there are other incidental occasions

on which Government apply to the Royal Society to recommend proper

persons to make particular experiments or observations; and, although I

am far from supposing that these are in many instances given to persons

the second or third best qualified for them, yet they deserve to be

mentioned.

SECTION 12. OF THE PLAN FOR REFORMING THE SOCIETY.

The indiscriminate admission of every candidate became at last so

notorious, even beyond the pale of the Society, that some of the members

began to perceive the inconveniences to which it led. This feeling,

together with a conviction that other improvements were necessary to

re-establish the Society in public opinion, induced several of the most

active members to wish for some reform in its laws and proceedings;

and a Committee was appointed to consider the subject. It was perfectly

understood, that the object of this Committee was to inquire,--First, as

to the means and propriety of limiting the numbers of this Society; and

then, as to other changes which they might think beneficial. The names

of the gentlemen composing this Committee were:--

Dr. Wollaston, Mr. Herschel,

Dr. Young, Mr. Babbage,

Mr. Davies Gilbert, Captain Beaufort,

Mr. South, Captain Kater.

The importance of the various improvements suggested was different in

the eyes of different members. The idea of rendering the Society so

select as to make it an object of ambition to men of science to be

elected into it, was by no means new, as the following extract from the

Minutes of the Council will prove:--

"MINUTES OF COUNCIL. August 27, 1674 Present,

Sir W. Petty, Vice-President,

Sir John Lowther,

Sir John Cutler,

Sir Christopher Wren,

Mr. Oldenburgh,

Sir Paul Neile.

"It was considered by this Council, that to make the Society prosper,

good experiments must be in the first place provided to make the

weekly meetings considerable, and that the expenses for making these

experiments must be secured by legal subscriptions for paying the

contributors; which done, the Council might then with confidence proceed

to the EJECTION OF USELESS FELLOWS."

The reformers of modern times were less energetic in the measures they

recommended. Dr. Wollaston and some others thought the limitation of

the numbers of the Society to be the most essential point, and 400 was

suggested as a proper number to be recommended, in case a limitation

should be ultimately resolved upon. I confess, such a limit did not

appear to me to bring great advantages, especially when I reflected

how long a time must have elapsed before the 714 members of the Society

could be reduced by death to that number. And I also thought that as

long as those who alone sustained the reputation of the Society by their

writings and discoveries should be admitted into it on precisely

the same terms, and on the payment of the same sum of money as other

gentlemen who contributed only with their purse, it could never be an

object of ambition to any man of science to be enrolled on its list.

With this view, and also to assist those who wished for a limitation, I

suggested a plan extremely simple in its nature, and which would become

effective immediately. I proposed that, in the printed list of the Royal

Society, a star should be placed against the name of each Fellow who

had contributed two or more papers which had been printed in the

Transactions, or that such a list should be printed separately at the

end.

At that period there were 109 living members who had contributed papers

to the Transactions, and they were thus arranged:

37 Contributors of.. 1 paper

21.......... 2 papers

19.......... 3 ditto

5 .......... 4 ditto

3 .......... 5 ditto

3 .......... 6 ditto

12.... from 7 to 12 ditto

14... of more than 12 papers.

100 Contributing Fellows of the Royal Society. 589 Papers contributed by

them.

Now the immediate effect of printing such a list would be the division

of the Society into two classes. Supposing two or more papers necessary

for placing a Fellow in the first class, that class would only consist

of seventy-two members, which is nearly the same as the number of those

of the Institute of France. If only those who had contributed three or

more were admitted, then this class would be reduced to fifty-one. In

either of these cases it would obviously become a matter of ambition

to belong to the first class; and a more minute investigation into the

value of each paper would naturally take place before it was admitted

into the Transactions. Or it might be established that such papers only

should be allowed to count, as the Committee, who reported them as fit

to be printed, should also certify. The great objection made to such

an arrangement was, that it would be displeasing to the rest of the

Society, and that they had a vested right (having entered the Society

when no distinction was made in the lists) to have them always continued

without one.

Without replying to this shadow of an argument of vested rights, I will

only remark that he who maintains this view pays a very ill compliment

to the remaining 600 members of the Royal Society; since he does,

in truth, maintain that those gentlemen who, from their position,

accidentally derive reputation which does not belong to them, are

unwilling, when the circumstance is pointed out, to allow the world

to assign it to those who have fairly won it; or else that they

are incapable of producing any thing worthy of being printed in the

Transactions of the Royal Society. Lightly as the conduct of the

Society, as a body, has compelled me to think of it, I do not think so

ill of the personal character of its members as to believe that if the

question were fairly stated to them, many would object to it.

Amongst the alterations which I considered most necessary to the

renovation of the Society, was the recommendation, by the expiring

Council, of those whom they thought most eligible for that of the

ensuing year.

The system which had got into practice was radically bad: it is

impossible to have an INDEPENDENT Council if it is named by ONE PERSON.

Our statutes were framed with especial regard to securing the fitness

of the members elected to serve in the Council; and the President is

directed, by those statutes, at the two ordinary meetings previous to

the anniversary, to give notice of the elections, and "to declare how

much it importeth the good of the Society that such persons may be

chosen into the Council as are most likely to attend the meetings and

business of the Council, and out of whom may be made the best choice of

a President and other officers." This is regularly done; and, in mockery

of the wisdom of our ancestors, the President has perhaps in his pocket

the list of the future Council he has already fixed upon.

In some other Societies, great advantage is found to arise from the

discussion of the proper persons to be recommended to the Society for

the Council of the next year. A list is prepared, by the Secretary, of

the old Council, and against each name is placed the number of times

he has attended the meetings of the Council. Those whose attendance has

been least frequent are presumed to be otherwise engaged, unless absence

from London, or engagement in some pursuit connected with the Society,

are known to have interfered. Those members who have been on the Council

the number of years which is usually allowed, added to those who go out

by their own wish, and by non-attendance, are, generally, more in number

than can be spared; and the question is never, who shall retire?--but,

who, out of the rest of the Society, is most likely to work, if placed

on the Council?

If any difference of opinion should exist in a society, it is always of

great importance to its prosperity to have both opinions represented

in the Council. In this age of discussion it is impossible to stifle

opinions; and if they are not represented in the Council, there is some

chance of their being brought before the general body, or, at last, even

before the public. It is certainly an advantage that questions should be

put, and even that debates should take place on the days appropriated

to the anniversaries of societies. This is the best check to the

commencement of irregularities; and a suspicion may reasonably be

entertained of those who endeavour to suppress inquiry.

On the other hand, debates respecting the affairs of the Society should

never be entered on at the ordinary meetings, as they interrupt its

business, and only a partial attendance can be expected. That the

conduct of those who have latterly managed the Royal Society has not

led to such discussions, is to be attributed more to the forbearance of

those who disapprove of the line of conduct they have pursued, than to

the discretion of the party in not giving them cause.

The public is the last tribunal; one to which nothing but strong

necessity should induce an appeal. There are, however, advantages in it

which may, in some cases, render it better than a public discussion at

the anniversary. When the cause of complaint is a system rather than any

one great grievance, it may be necessary to enter more into detail than

a speech will permit; also the printed statement and arguments will

probably come under the consideration of a larger number of the members.

Another and a considerable benefit is, that there is much less danger

of any expression of temper interrupting or injuring the arguments

employed.

There were other points suggested, but I shall subjoin the Report of the

Committee:--

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED TO CONSIDER THE BEST MEANS OF LIMITING

THE MEMBERS ADMITTED INTO THE ROYAL SOCIETY, AS WELL AS TO MAKE SUCH

SUGGESTIONS ON THAT SUBJECT AS MAY SEEM TO THEM CONDUCIVE TO THE WELFARE

OF THE SOCIETY.

Your Committee having maturely considered the resolution of the Council

under which they have been appointed; and having satisfied themselves

that the progressive increase of the Society has been in a much higher

ratio than the progressive increase of population, or the general growth

of knowledge, or the extension of those sciences which it has been

the great object of the Society to promote, they have agreed to the

following Report:--

Your Committee assume as indisputable propositions, that the utility

of the Society is in direct proportion to its respectability. That

its respectability can only be secured by its comprising men of high

philosophical eminence; and that the obvious means of associating

persons of this eminence will be the public conviction, that to belong

to the Society is an honour. Your Committee, therefore, think themselves

fully borne out in the conclusion, that it would be expedient to limit

the Society to such a number as should be a fair representation of the

talent of the country; the consequence of which will be, that every

vacancy would become an object of competition among persons of

acknowledged merit.

From the returns which have been laid on your table, of the Fellows who

have contributed papers, and from the best estimate they can make of the

persons without doors who are engaged in the active pursuit of science,

your Committee feel justified in recommending that those limits should

be fixed at four hundred, exclusive of foreign members, and of such

royal personages as it may be thought proper to admit.

As many years must elapse before the present number of seven hundred and

fourteen can be reduced to those limits by the course of nature, and as

it would be prejudicial to the interests of the Society and of science,

that no fresh accessions should take place during that long period, your

Committee would further recommend, that till that event takes place,

four new members should be annually admitted.

With respect to the manner of admission, your Committee are of opinion,

that there are several inconveniences in the present mode of proceeding

to a single ballot upon each certificate, according to its seniority.

If the above limitation should be adopted, it may be presumed, that for

every vacancy there will be many candidates; from amongst them, it must

be the general wish to select the most distinguished individuals; but to

accomplish this, if the present system were to be continued, it would

be necessary to reject all those candidates whose certificates were of

earlier date than theirs; a process not only extremely irritating,

but probably ineffectual from the want of unanimity. Your Committee,

therefore, most earnestly recommend, that one general election should

take place every year towards the end of the session, and that this

should be conducted on the same principles as the present annual

election of the Council and officers; VIZ. by having lists printed of

all the candidates (whose certificates had been suspended for the usual

time,) in which lists each Fellow would mark the requisite number of

persons.

As the charter, however, requires the concurrence of two-thirds of the

Fellows present, your Committee suggest, that after the choice has been

determined by the plurality of votes by ballot in the above manner, the

successful candidates should be again submitted to a general vote, in

accordance with the enactments of the said charter.

In concluding this part of the subject, your Committee beg leave

to remark, that by the method now proposed, the invidious act of

blackballing would cease, and with it all feelings of resentment and

mortification; as the result of such an open competition could only be

construed by the public into a fair preference of the superior claims of

the successful few, and not into a direct and disgraceful rejection of

the others.

Your Committee are fully aware, that such a reduction in the usual

admissions would materially affect the pecuniary resources of the

Society; but they are at the same time convinced, that by a vigorous

economy its present income might be rendered adequate to all its real

wants, and the aggregate expenditure might be considerably diminished by

many small but wholesome retrenchments.

It appears, from the accounts of last year, that although 1200L. was

received for compositions, in addition to the standing income, and usual

contributions, &c., and although no money was invested, yet there was a

balance only of a few pounds at the end of the year. It further appears,

that 500L. was paid for the paper, 370L. for engravings, and nearly

340L. for printing; and from those alarming facts, your Committee submit

to your consideration, whether the expenditure might not be beneficially

controlled by a standing Committee of Finance.

In obedience to the latter part of your resolution, your Committee now

proceed to offer some further suggestions for your consideration.

They conceive that it would afford a beneficial stimulus to individual

exertion, if the Fellows who have received the medals of the Society,

and those who have repeatedly enriched its Transactions, were

distinguished by being collected into a separate and honourable list. It

would also be found, perhaps, not less a future incentive than an act of

retrospective justice, if the names of all those illustrious Fellows who

have formerly obtained the medals, as well as of all those individuals

who have been large benefactors to the Society, were recorded at the end

of the list. It would be a satisfactory addition likewise to the annual

list, if all those Fellows who have died, or had been admitted within

the preceding year, were regularly noticed. And your Committee think,

that these lists should always form part of the Transactions, and be

stitched up with the last part of the volume.

It requires no argument to demonstrate that the well-being of the

Society mainly depends on the activity and integrity of its Council;

and as their selection is unquestionably of paramount importance, your

Committee hope that our excellent President will not consider it any

impeachment of his impartiality, or any doubt of his zeal, if they

venture to suggest, that the usual recommendation to the Society of

proper members for the future Council should henceforth be considered as

a fit subject for the diligent and anxious deliberation of the expiring

Council.

There is another point of great moment to the character of the Society,

and to the dignified station it occupies among the learned associations

of Europe; for its character abroad can only be appreciated by the

nature and value of its Transactions. Your Committee allude to the

important task of deciding on what papers should be published; and they

are of opinion that it would be a material improvement on the present

mode, if each paper were referred to a separate Committee, who should

have sufficient time given them to examine it carefully, who should be

empowered to communicate on any doubtful parts with the author; and who

should report, not only their opinion, but the grounds on which that

opinion is formed, for the ultimate decision of the Council.

If it should be thought fit to adopt the suggestions which your

Committee have now had the honour of proposing, they beg leave to move,

that another Committee be appointed, with directions to frame or to

alter the necessary statutes, so that they may be in strict accordance

with the charters.

In concluding the Report, your Committee do not wish to disguise the

magnitude of some of the measures they have thought it their duty

to propose; on the contrary, they would not only urge the fullest

discussion of their expediency; but further, that if you should even be

unanimously disposed to confirm them, your Committee would recommend,

that the several statutes, when they have been drawn up or modified,

should be only entered on your minutes, and not finally enacted.

All innovations in the constitution, or even the habits of the Royal

Society, should be scrutinized with the most jealous circumspection.

It is enough for the present Council to have traced the plan; let the

Council of the ensuing sessions share the credit of carrying that plan

into effect.

This Report was presented to the Council very late in the session of

1827, and on the 25th of June there occurs the following entry on the

council-book:--

"The Report of the Committee for considering the best means of limiting

the number of members, and such other suggestions as they may think

conducive to the good of the Society, was received and read, and ordered

to be entered on the minutes; and the Council, regarding the importance

of the subject, and its bearings on the essential interests of the

Society, in conformity with the concluding paragraph, and considering

also the advanced stage of the session, recommend it to the most serious

and early consideration of the Council for the ensuing year."

Those who advocated these alterations, were in no hurry for their

hasty adoption; they were aware of their magnitude, and anxious for the

fullest investigation before one of them should be tried.

Unfortunately, the concluding recommendation of the Committee did not

coincide with the views of Mr. Gilbert, whom the party had determined to

make their new President. That gentleman made such arrangements for the

Council of the succeeding year, that when the question respecting the

consideration of the Report of that Committee was brought forward, it

was thrown aside in the manner I have stated. Thus a report, sanctioned

by the names of such a committee, and recommended by one Council to

"THE MOST SERIOUS and EARLY consideration of the Council for the ensuing

year," was by that very Council rejected, without even the ceremony of

discussing its merits. Was every individual recommendation it contained,

not merely unfit to be adopted, but so totally deficient in plausibility

as to be utterly unworthy of discussion? Or did the President and his

officers feel, that their power rested on an insecure foundation, and

that they did not possess the confidence of the working members of the

Society?

CHAPTER V. OF OBSERVATIONS.

There are several reflections connected with the art of making

observations and experiments, which may be conveniently arranged in this

chapter.

SECTION 1. OF MINUTE PRECISION.

No person will deny that the highest degree of attainable accuracy is an

object to be desired, and it is generally found that the last advances

towards precision require a greater devotion of time, labour, and

expense, than those which precede them. The first steps in the path of

discovery, and the first approximate measures, are those which add most

to the existing knowledge of mankind.

The extreme accuracy required in some of our modern inquiries has, in

some respects, had an unfortunate influence, by favouring the opinion,

that no experiments are valuable, unless the measures are most minute,

and the accordance amongst them most perfect. It may, perhaps, be of

some use to show, that even with large instruments, and most practised

observers, this is but rarely the case. The following extract is taken

from a representation made by the present Astronomer-Royal, to the

Council of the Royal Society, on the advantages to be derived from the

employment of two mural circles:--

"That by observing, with two instruments, the same objects at the same

time, and in the same manner, we should be able to estimate how much of

that OCCASIONAL DISCORDANCE FROM THE MEAN, which attends EVEN THE

MOST CAREFUL OBSERVATIONS, ought to be attributed to irregularity of

refraction, and how much to THE IMPERFECTIONS OF INSTRUMENTS."

In confirmation of this may be adduced the opinion of the late M.

Delambre, which is the more important, from the statement it contains

relative to the necessity of publishing all the observations which have

been made.

"Mais quelque soit le parti que l'on prefere, il me semble qu'on doit

tout publier. Ces irregularites memes sont des faits qu'il importe de

connoitre. LES SOINS LES PLUS ATTENTIFS N'EN SAUROIENT PRESERVER LES

OBSERVATEURS LES PLUS EXERCES, et celui qui ne produiroit que des angles

toujours parfaitment d'accord auroit ete singulierement bien servi

par les circonstances ou ne seroit pas bien sincere."--BASE DU SYSTEME

METRIQUE, Discours Preliminaire, p. 158.

This desire for extreme accuracy has called away the attention of

experimenters from points of far greater importance, and it seems to

have been too much overlooked in the present day, that genius marks its

tract, not by the observation of quantities inappreciable to any but the

acutest senses, but by placing Nature in such circumstances, that she is

forced to record her minutest variations on so magnified a scale, that

an observer, possessing ordinary faculties, shall find them legibly

written. He who can see portions of matter beyond the ken of the rest of

his species, confers an obligation on them, by recording what he sees;

but their knowledge depends both on his testimony and on his judgment.

He who contrives a method of rendering such atoms visible to ordinary

observers, communicates to mankind an instrument of discovery, and

stamps his own observations with a character, alike independent of

testimony or of judgment.

SECTION 2. ON THE ART OF OBSERVING.

The remarks in this section are not proposed for the assistance of

those who are already observers, but are intended to show to persons not

familiar with the subject, that in observations demanding no unrivalled

accuracy, the principles of common sense may be safely trusted, and that

any gentleman of liberal education may, by perseverance and attention,

ascertain the limits within which he may trust both his instrument and

himself.

If the instrument is a divided one, the first thing is to learn to

read the verniers. If the divisions are so fine that the coincidence is

frequently doubtful, the best plan will be for the learner to get some

acquaintance who is skilled in the use of instruments, and having set

the instrument at hazard, to write down the readings of the verniers,

and then request his friend to do the same; whenever there is any

difference, he should carefully examine the doubtful one, and ask his

friend to point out the minute peculiarities on which he founds his

decision. This should be repeated frequently; and after some practice,

he should note how many times in a hundred his reading differs from his

friend's, and also how many divisions they usually differ.

The next point is, to ascertain the precision with which the learner

can bisect an object with the wires of the telescope. This can be done

without assistance. It is not necessary even to adjust the instrument,

but merely to point it to a distant object. When it bisects any

remarkable point, read off the verniers, and write down the result; then

displace the telescope a little, and adjust it again. A series of such

observations will show the confidence which is due to the observer's

eye in bisecting an object, and also in reading the verniers; and as the

first direction gave him some measure of the latter, he may, in a great

measure, appreciate his skill in the former. He should also, when he

finds a deviation in the reading, return to the telescope, and satisfy

himself if he has made the bisection as complete as he can. In general,

the student should practise each adjustment separately, and write down

the results wherever he can measure its deviations.

Having thus practised the adjustments, the next step is to make an

observation; but in order to try both himself and the instrument, let

him take the altitude of some fixed object, a terrestrial one, and

having registered the result, let him derange the adjustment, and repeat

the process fifty or a hundred times. This will not merely afford him

excellent practice, but enable him to judge of his own skill.

The first step in the use of every instrument, is to find the limits

within which its employer can measure the SAME OBJECT UNDER THE SAME

CIRCUMSTANCES. It is only from a knowledge of this, that he can

have confidence in his measures of the SAME OBJECT UNDER DIFFERENT

CIRCUMSTANCES, and after that, of DIFFERENT OBJECTS UNDER DIFFERENT

CIRCUMSTANCES.

These principles are applicable to almost all instruments. If a person

is desirous of ascertaining heights by a mountain barometer, let him

begin by adjusting the instrument in his own study; and having made the

upper contact, let him write down the reading of the vernier, and then

let him derange the UPPER adjustment ONLY, re-adjust, and repeat the

reading. When he is satisfied about the limits within which he can make

that adjustment, let him do the same repeatedly with the lower; but

let him not, until he knows his own errors in reading and adjusting,

pronounce upon those of the instrument. In the case of a barometer,

he must also be assured, that the temperature of the mercury does not

change during the interval.

A friend once brought to me a beautifully constructed piece of

mechanism, for marking minute portions of time; the three-hundredth

parts of a second were indicated by it. It was a kind of watch, with

a pin for stopping one of the hands. I proposed that we should each

endeavour to stop it twenty times in succession, at the same point. We

were both equally unpractised, and our first endeavours showed that we

could not be confident of the twentieth part of a second. In fact, both

the time occupied in causing the extremities of the fingers to obey the

volition, as well as the time employed in compressing the flesh before

the fingers acted on the stop, appeared to influence the accuracy of our

observations. From some few experiments I made, I thought I perceived

that the rapidity of the transmission of the effects of the will,

depended on the state of fatigue or health of the body. If any one were

to make experiments on this subject, it might be interesting, to compare

the rapidity of the transmission of volition in different persons,

with the time occupied in obliterating an impression made on one of the

senses of the same persons. For example, by having a mechanism to make

a piece of ignited charcoal revolve with different degrees of velocity,

some persons will perceive a continuous circle of light before others,

whose retina does not retain so long impressions that are made upon it.

SECTION 3. ON THE FRAUDS OF OBSERVERS.

Scientific inquiries are more exposed than most others to the inroads of

pretenders; and I feel that I shall deserve the thanks of all who really

value truth, by stating some of the methods of deceiving practised by

unworthy claimants for its honours, whilst the mere circumstance of

their arts being known may deter future offenders.

There are several species of impositions that have been practised in

science, which are but little known, except to the initiated, and which

it may perhaps be possible to render quite intelligible to ordinary

understandings. These may be classed under the heads of hoaxing,

forging, trimming, and cooking.

OF HOAXING. This, perhaps, will be better explained by an example. In

the year 1788, M. Gioeni, a knight of Malta, published at Naples an

account of a new family of Testacea, of which he described, with great

minuteness, one species, the specific name of which has been taken from

its habitat, and the generic he took from his own family, calling it

Gioenia Sicula. It consisted of two rounded triangular valves, united by

the body of the animal to a smaller valve in front. He gave figures

of the animal, and of its parts; described its structure, its mode of

advancing along the sand, the figure of the tract it left, and estimated

the velocity of its course at about two-thirds of an inch per minute. He

then described the structure of the shell, which he treated with nitric

acid, and found it approach nearer to the nature of bone than any other

shell.

The editors of the ENCYCLOPEDIE METHODIQUE, have copied this

description, and have given figures of the Gioenia Sicula. The fact,

however, is, that no such animal exists, but that the knight of Malta,

finding on the Sicilian shores the three internal bones of one of the

species of Bulla, of which some are found on the south-western coast

of England, [Bulla lignaria] described and figured these bones most

accurately, and drew the whole of the rest of the description from the

stores of his own imagination.

Such frauds are far from justifiable; the only excuse which has been

made for them is, when they have been practised on scientific academies

which had reached the period of dotage. It should however be remembered,

that the productions of nature are so various, that mere strangeness

is very far from sufficient to render doubtful the existence of any

creature for which there is evidence; [The number of vertebrae in the

neck of the plesiosaurus is a strange but ascertained fact] and that,

unless the memoir itself involves principles so contradictory, as to

outweigh the evidence of a single witness, [The kind of contradiction

which is here alluded to, is that which arises from well ascertained

final causes; for instance, the ruminating stomach of the hoofed

animals, is in no case combined with the claw-shaped form of the

extremities, frequent in many of the carniverous animals, and necessary

to some of them for the purpose of seizing their prey] it can only be

regarded as a deception, without the accompaniment of wit.

FORGING differs from hoaxing, inasmuch as in the latter the deceit is

intended to last for a time, and then be discovered, to the ridicule of

those who have credited it; whereas the forger is one who, wishing to

acquire a reputation for science, records observations which he has

never made. This is sometimes accomplished in astronomical observations

by calculating the time and circumstances of the phenomenon from tables.

The observations of the second comet of 1784, which was only seen by

the Chevalier D'Angos, were long suspected to be a forgery, and were at

length proved to be so by the calculations and reasonings of Encke. The

pretended observations did not accord amongst each other in giving any

possible orbit. But M. Encke detected an orbit, belonging to some of

the observations, from which he found that all the rest might be almost

precisely deduced, provided a mistake of a unity in the index of the

logarithm of the radius vector were supposed to have been made in all

the rest of the calculations. ZACH. CORR. ASTRON. Tom. IV. p. 456.

Fortunately instances of the occurrence of forging are rare.

TRIMMING consists in clipping off little bits here and there from those

observations which differ most in excess from the mean, and in

sticking them on to those which are too small; a species of "equitable

adjustment," as a radical would term it, which cannot be admitted in

science.

This fraud is not perhaps so injurious (except to the character of the

trimmer) as cooking, which the next paragraph will teach, The reason of

this is, that the AVERAGE given by the observations of the trimmer is

the same, whether they are trimmed or untrimmed. His object is to gain a

reputation for extreme accuracy in making observations; but from respect

for truth, or from a prudent foresight, he does not distort the position

of the fact he gets from nature, and it is usually difficult to detect

him. He has more sense or less adventure than the Cook.

OF COOKING. This is an art of various forms, the object of which is to

give to ordinary observations the appearance and character of those of

the highest degree of accuracy.

One of its numerous processes is to make multitudes of observations, and

out of these to select those only which agree, or very nearly agree.

If a hundred observations are made, the cook must be very unlucky if he

cannot pick out fifteen or twenty which will do for serving up.

Another approved receipt, when the observations to be used will not

come within the limit of accuracy, which it has been resolved they shall

possess, is to calculate them by two different formulae. The difference

in the constants employed in those formulae has sometimes a most happy

effect in promoting unanimity amongst discordant measures. If still

greater accuracy is required, three or more formulae can be used.

It must be admitted that this receipt is in some instances rather

hazardous: but in cases where the positions of stars, as given in

different catalogues, occur, or different tables of specific gravities,

specific heats, &c. &c., it may safely be employed. As no catalogue

contains all stars, the computer must have recourse to several; and if

he is obliged to use his judgment in the selection, it would be cruel

to deny him any little advantage which might result from it. It may,

however, be necessary to guard against one mistake into which persons

might fall.

If an observer calculate particular stars from a catalogue which makes

them accord precisely with the rest of his results, whereas, had they

been computed from other catalogues the difference would have been

considerable, it is very unfair to accuse him of COOKING; for--those

catalogues may have been notoriously inaccurate; or--they may have

been superseded by others more recent, or made with better instruments;

or--the observer may have been totally ignorant of their existence.

It sometimes happens that the constant quantities in formulae given by

the highest authorities, although they differ amongst themselves, yet

they will not suit the materials. This is precisely the point in which

the skill of the artist is shown; and an accomplished cook will carry

himself triumphantly through it, provided happily some mean value of

such constants will fit his observations. He will discuss the relative

merits of formulae he has just knowledge enough to use; and, with

admirable candour assigning their proper share of applause to Bessel, to

Gauss, and to Laplace, he will take THAT mean value of the constant used

by three such philosophers, which will make his own observations accord

to a miracle.

There are some few reflections which I would venture to suggest to those

who cook, although they may perhaps not receive the attention which, in

my opinion, they deserve, from not coming from the pen of an adept.

In the first place, it must require much time to try different

formulae. In the next place it may happen that, in the progress of human

knowledge, more correct formula: may be discovered, and constants may

be determined with far greater precision. Or it may be found that some

physical circumstance influences the results, (although unsuspected at

the time) the measure of which circumstance may perhaps be recovered

from other contemporary registers of facts. [Imagine, by way of example,

the state of the barometer or thermometer.] Or if the selection of

observations has been made with the view of its agreeing precisely with

the latest determination, there is some little danger that the average

of the whole may differ from that of the chosen ones, owing to some law

of nature, dependent on the interval between the two sets, which

law some future philosopher may discover, and thus the very best

observations may have been thrown aside.

In all these, and in numerous other cases, it would most probably

happen that the cook would procure a temporary reputation for unrivalled

accuracy at the expense of his permanent fame. It might also have the

effect of rendering even all his crude observations of no value; for

that part of the scientific world whose opinion is of most weight, is

generally so unreasonable, as to neglect altogether the observations

of those in whom they have, on any occasion, discovered traces of the

artist. In fact, the character of an observer, as of a woman, if doubted

is destroyed.

The manner in which facts apparently lost are restored to light, even

after considerable intervals of time, is sometimes very unexpected, and

a few examples may not be without their use. The thermometers employed

by the philosophers who composed the Academia Del Cimento, have been

lost; and as they did not use the two fixed points of freezing and

boiling water, the results of a great mass of observations have remained

useless from our ignorance of the value of a degree on their instrument.

M. Libri, of Florence, proposed to regain this knowledge by comparing

their registers of the temperature of the human body and of that of some

warm springs in Tuscany, which have preserved their heat uniform during

a century, as well as of other things similarly circumstanced.

Another illustration was pointed out to me by M. Gazzeri, the Professor

of Chemistry at Florence. A few years ago an important suit in one of

the legal courts of Tuscany depended on ascertaining whether a certain

word had been erased by some chemical process from a deed then before

the court. The party who insisted that an erasure had been made, availed

themselves of the knowledge of M. Gazzeri, who, concluding that those

who committed the fraud would be satisfied by the disappearance of the

colouring matter of the ink, suspected (either from some colourless

matter remaining in the letters, or perhaps from the agency of the

solvent having weakened the fabric of the paper itself beneath the

supposed letters) that the effect of the slow application of heat would

be to render some difference of texture or of applied substance evident,

by some variety in the shade of colour which heat in such circumstances

might be expected to produce. Permission having been given to try the

experiment, on the application of heat the important word reappeared, to

the great satisfaction of the court.

CHAPTER VI. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND.

SECTION 1. OF THE NECESSITY THAT MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY SHOULD

EXPRESS THEIR OPINIONS.

One of the causes which has contributed to the success of the PARTY, is

to be found in the great reluctance with which many of those whose names

added lustre to the Society expressed their opinions, and the little

firmness with which they maintained their objections. How many times

have those whose activity was additionally stimulated by their interest,

proposed measures which a few words might have checked; whilst the

names of those whose culpable silence thus permitted the project to be

matured, were immediately afterwards cited by their grateful coadjutors,

as having sanctioned that which in their hearts they knew to be a job.

Even in the few cases which have passed the limits of such forbearance,

when the subject has been debated in the Council, more than one, more

than two instances are known, where subsequent circumstances have

occurred, which proved, with the most irresistible moral evidence, that

members have spoken on one side of the question, and have voted on the

contrary.

This reluctance to oppose that which is disapproved, has been too

extensively and too fatally prevalent for the interests of the Royal

Society. It may partly be attributed to that reserved and retiring

disposition, which frequently marks the man of real knowledge, as

strongly as an officious interference and flippant manner do the

charlatan, or the trader in science. Some portion of it is due to that

improper deference which was long paid to every dictum of the President,

and much of it to that natural indisposition to take trouble on any

point in which a man's own interest is not immediately concerned. It is

to be hoped, for the credit of that learned body, that no anticipation

of the next feast of St. Andrew ever influenced the taciturnity of their

disposition. [It may be necessary to inform those who are not members

of the Royal Society, that this is the day on which those Fellows who

choose, meet at Somerset House, to register the names of the Council and

Officers the President has been pleased to appoint for the ensuing year;

and who afterwards dine together, for the purpose of praising each other

over wine, which, until within these few years, was PAID for out of

the FUNDS of the Society. This abuse was attacked by an enterprising

reformer, and of course defended by the coterie. It was, however,

given up as too bad. The public may form some idea of the feeling which

prevails in the Council, when they are informed that this practice was

defended by one of the officers of the Society, on the ground that,

if abolished, THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY WOULD LOSE HIS PERCENTAGE ON THE

TAVERN BILLS.]

SECTION 2. OF BIENNIAL PRESIDENTS.

The days in which the Royal Society can have much influence in science

seem long past; nor does it appear a matter of great importance who

conduct its mismanaged affairs. Perpetual Presidents have been tried

until the Society has become disgusted with dictators. If any reform

should be attempted, it might perhaps be deserving consideration whether

the practice of several of the younger institutions might not be worthy

imitation, and the office of President be continued only during two

sessions. There may be some inconveniences attending this arrangement;

but the advantages are conspicuous, both in the Astronomical and

Geological Societies. Each President is ambitious of rendering the

period of his reign remarkable for some improvement in the Society

over which he presides; and the sacrifice of time which is made by the

officers of those Societies, would become impossible if it were required

to be continued for a much longer period. Another circumstance of

considerable importance is, that the personal character of the President

is less impressed on the Society; and, supposing any injudicious

alterations to be made, it is much less difficult to correct them.

SECTION 3. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE COLLEGES OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS

IN THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

The honour of belonging to the Royal Society is much sought after

by medical men, as contributing to the success of their professional

efforts, and two consequences result from it. In the first place, the

pages of the Transactions of the Royal Society occasionally contain

medical papers of very moderate merit; and, in the second, the

preponderance of the medical interest introduces into the Society some

of the jealousies of that profession. On the other hand, medicine is

intimately connected with many sciences, and its professors are usually

too much occupied in their practice to exert themselves, except upon

great occasions.

SECTION 4. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION ON THE ROYAL

SOCIETY.

The Royal Institution was founded for the cultivation of the more

popular and elementary branches of scientific knowledge, and has risen,

partly from the splendid discoveries of Davy, and partly from the

decline of the Royal Society, to a more prominent station than it would

otherwise have occupied in the science of England. Its general

effects in diffusing knowledge among the more educated classes of the

metropolis, have been, and continue to be, valuable. Its influence,

however, in the government of the Royal Society, is by no means attended

with similar advantages, and has justly been viewed with considerable

jealousy by many of the Fellows of that body. It may be stated,

without disparagement to the Royal Institution, that the scientific

qualifications necessary for its officers, however respectable, are not

quite of that high order which ought to be required for those of the

Royal Society, if the latter body were in a state of vigour.

The Royal Institution interest has always been sufficient to appoint one

of the Secretaries of the Royal Society; and at the present moment they

have appointed two. In a short time, unless some effectual check is put

to this, we shall find them nominating the President and the rest of the

officers. It is certainly not consistent with the dignity of the Royal

Society thus to allow its offices to be given away as the rewards of

services rendered to other institutions. The only effectual way to put a

stop to this increasing interest would be, to declare that no manager

or officer of the Royal Institution should ever, at the same time, hold

office in the Royal Society.

The use the Members of the Royal Institution endeavour to make of their

power in the Council of the Royal Society, is exemplified in the minutes

of the Council of March 11, 1830, which may be consulted with advantage

by those who doubt.

SECTION 5. OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

The Transactions of the Royal Society, unlike those of most foreign

academies, contain nothing relating to the history of the Society. The

volumes contain merely those papers communicated to the Society in

the preceding year which the Council have selected for printing, a

meteorological register, and a notice of the award of the annual medals,

without any list of the Council and officers of the Society, by whom

that selection and that award have been made.

Before I proceed to criticise this state of things, I will mention one

point on which I am glad to be able to bestow on the Royal Society the

highest praise. I refer to the extreme regularity with which the volumes

of the Transactions are published. The appearance of the half-volumes at

intervals of six months, insures for any communication almost immediate

publicity; whilst the shortness of the time between its reception and

publication, is a guarantee to the public that the whole of the paper

was really communicated at the time it bears date. To this may also be

added, the rarity of any alterations made previously to the printing,

a circumstance which ought to be imitated, as well as admired, by other

societies. There may, indeed, be some, perhaps the Geological, in which

the task is more difficult, from the nature of the subject. The sooner,

however, all societies can reduce themselves to this rule, of rarely

allowing any thing but a few verbal corrections to papers that are

placed in their hands, the better it will be for their own reputation,

and for the interests of science.

It has been, and continues to be, a subject of deep regret, that the

first scientific academy in Europe, the Institute of France, should be

thus negligent in the regularity of its publications; and it is the

more to be regretted, that it should be years in arrear, from the

circumstance, that the memoirs admitted into their collection are

usually of the highest merit. I know some of their most active members

have wished it were otherwise; I would urge them to put a stop to a

practice, which, whilst it has no advantages to recommend it, is unjust

to those who contribute, and is only calculated to produce conflicting

claims, equally injurious to science, and to the reputation of that

body, whose negligence may have given rise to them. [Mr. Herschel,

speaking of a paper of Fresnel's, observes--"This memoir was read to

the Institute, 7th of October, 1816; a supplement was received, 19th of

January, 1818; M. Arago's report on it was read, 4th of June, 1821: and

while every optical philosopher in Europe has been impatiently expecting

its appearance for seven years, it lies as yet unpublished, and is only

known to us by meagre notices in a periodical journal." MR HERSCHEL'S

TREATISE ON LIGHT, p. 533.--ENCYCLOPAEDIA METROPOLITANA.]

One of the inconveniences arising from having no historical portion in

the volumes of the Royal Society is, that not only the public, but our

own members are almost entirely ignorant of all its affairs. With a

means of giving considerable publicity (by the circulation of above 800

copies of the Transactions) to whatever we wish to have made known to

our members or to the world, will it be credited, that no notice was

taken in our volume for 1826, of the foundation of two Royal medals,

nor of the conditions under which they were to be distributed. [That

the Council refrained from having their first award of those medals thus

communicated, is rather creditable to them, and proves that they had a

becoming feeling respecting their former errors.] That in 1828, when

a new fund, called the donation fund, was established, and through the

liberality of Dr. Wollaston and Mr. Davies Gilbert, it was endowed by

them with the respective sums of 2,000L. and 1,000L. 3 per cents;

no notice of such fact appears in our Transactions for 1829. Other

gentlemen have contributed; and if it is desirable to possess such a

fund, it is surely of importance to inform the non-attending, which is

by far the largest part of the Society, that it exists; and that we are

grateful to those by whom it has been founded and augmented. Neither

did the Philosophical Transactions inform our absent members, that they

could purchase the President's Discourses at the trade-price.

The list of the Officers, Council, and Members of the Royal Society is

printed annually; yet, who ever saw it bound up with the Philosophical

Transactions, to which it is intended to be attached? I never met with

a single copy of that work so completed, not even the one in our own

library. It is extremely desirable that the Society should know the

names of their Council; and whilst it would in some measure contribute

to prevent the President from placing incompetent persons upon it, it

would also afford some check, although perhaps but a slight one, on

the distribution of the medals. When I have urged the expediency of the

practice, I have been answered by excuses, that the list could not be

made up in time for the volume. If this is true of the first part, they

might appear with the second; and even if this were impracticable, the

plan of prefixing them to the volume of the succeeding year, would

be preferable to that of omitting them altogether. The true reason,

however, appeared at last. It was objected to the plan, that by the

present arrangement, the porter of the Royal Society took round the

list to those members resident in London, and got from some of them a

remuneration, in the shape of a Christmas-box; and this would be lost,

if the time of printing were changed. [During the printing of this

chapter, a friend, on whom I had called, complained that the porter of

the Royal Society had demanded half-a-crown for leaving the list.] Such

are the paltry interests to which those of the Royal Society are made to

bow.

Another point on which information ought to be given in each volume,

is the conditions on which the distribution of the Society's medals

are made. It is true that these are, or ought to be, printed with

the Statutes of the Society; but that volume is only in the hands of

members, and it is for the credit of the medals themselves, that the

laws which regulate their award should be widely known, in order that

persons, not members of the Society, might enter into competition for

them.

Information relative to the admissions and deaths amongst the Society

would also be interesting; a list of the names of those whom the Society

had lost, and of those members who had been added to its ranks each

year, would find a proper place in the historical pages which ought to

be given with each volume of our Transactions.

The want of a distinction between the working members of the Society,

and those who merely honour it with their patronage, renders many

arrangements, which would be advantageous to science, in some cases,

injudicious, and in other instances, almost impossible.

Collections of Observations which are from time to time given to the

Society, may be of such a nature, that but few of the members are

interested in them. In such cases, the expense of printing above 800

copies may reasonably induce the Council to decline printing them

altogether; whereas, if they had any means of discrimination for

distributing them, they might be quite willing to incur the expense

of printing 250. Other cases may occur, in which great advantage

would accrue, if the principle were once admitted. Government, the

Universities, public bodies, and even individuals might, in some cases,

be disposed to present to the Royal Society a limited number of copies

of their works, if they knew that they were likely to be placed in

the hands of persons who would use them. Fifty or a hundred additional

copies might, in some cases, not be objected to on the ground of

expense, when seven or eight hundred would be quite out of the question.

Let us suppose twenty copies of a description of some new chemical

process to be placed at the disposal of the Royal Society by any public

body; it will not surely be contended that they ought all to remain on

the Society's shelves. Yet, with our present rules, that would be the

case. If, however, the list of the Members of the Society were read over

to the Council, and the names of those gentlemen known to be conversant

with chemical science were written down; then, if nineteen copies of

the work were given to those nineteen persons on this list, who had

contributed most to the Transactions of the Society, they would in all

probability be placed in the fittest hands.

Complete sets of the Philosophical Transactions have now become

extremely bulky; it might be well worth our consideration, whether the

knowledge of the many valuable papers they contain would not be much

spread, by publishing the abstracts of them which have been read at the

ordinary meetings of the Society. Perhaps two or three volumes octavo,

would contain all that has been done in this way during the last

century.

Another circumstance, which would contribute much to the order of the

proceedings of the Council, would be to have a distinct list made out of

all the statutes and orders of the Council relating to each particular

subject.

Thus the President, by having at one view before him all that had ever

been decreed on the question under consideration, would be much better

able to prevent inconsistent resolutions, and to save the time of the

Council from being wasted by unnecessary discussions.

SECTION 6. ORDER OF MERIT.

Amongst the various proposals for encouraging science, the institution

of an order of merit has been suggested. It is somewhat singular, that

whilst in most of the other kingdoms of Europe, such orders exist for

the purpose of rewarding, by honorary distinctions, the improvers of the

arts of life, or successful discoverers in science, nothing of the

kind has been established in England. [At the great meeting of the

philosophers at Berlin, in 1828, of which an account is given in the

Appendix; the respect in which Berzelius, Oersted, Gauss, and Humboldt

were held in their respective countries was apparent in the orders

bestowed on them by the Sovereigns of Sweden, of Denmark, of Hanover,

and of Prussia; and there were present many other philosophers, whose

decorations sufficiently attested the respect in which science was held

in the countries from which they came.]

Our orders of knighthood are favourable only to military distinction.

It has been urged, as an argument for such institutions, that they are a

cheap mode of rewarding science, whilst, on the other hand, it has

been objected, that they would diminish the value of such honorary

distinctions by making them common. The latter objection is of little

weight, because the numbers who pursue science are few, and, probably,

will long continue so. It would also be easily avoided, by restricting

the number of the order or of the class, if it were to form a peculiar

class of another order. Another objection, however, appears to me to

possess far greater weight; and, however strong the disposition of the

Government might be (if such an order existed) to fill it properly, I

do not believe that, in the present state of public opinion respecting

science, it could be done, and, in all probability, it would be filled

up through the channels of patronage, and by mere jobbers in science.

Another proposal, of a similar kind, has also been talked of, one which

it may appear almost ridiculous to suggest in England, but which would

be considered so in no other country. It is, to ennoble some of the

greatest scientific benefactors of their country. Not to mention

political causes, the ranks of the nobility are constantly recruited

from the army, the navy, and the bar; why should not the family of that

man, whose name is imperishably connected with the steam-engine, be

enrolled amongst the nobility of his country? In utility and profit,

not merely to that country, but to the human race, his deeds may proudly

claim comparison even with the most splendid of those achieved by

classes so rich in glorious recollections. An objection, in most cases

fatal to such a course, arises from the impolicy of conferring a title,

unless a considerable fortune exists to support it; a circumstance

very rarely occurring to the philosopher. It might in some measure be

removed, by creating such titles only for life. But here, again, until

there existed some knowledge of science amongst the higher classes, and

a sound state of public opinion relative to science, the execution of

the plan could only be injurious.

SECTION 7. OF THE UNION OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

This idea has occurred to several persons, as likely to lead to

considerable advantages to science. If the various scientific societies

could unite in the occupation of one large building, considerable

economy would result from the union. By properly arranging their

evenings of meeting, one meeting-room only need be required. The

libraries might either be united, or arranged in adjoining rooms; and

such a system would greatly facilitate the inquiries of scientific

persons.

Whether it would be possible to reunite in any way the different

societies to the Royal Society, might be a delicate question; but

although, on some accounts, desirable, that event is not necessary for

the purpose of their having a common residence.

The Medico-Botanical Society might, perhaps, from sympathy, be the first

to which the Royal Society would apply; and by a proper interchange of

diplomas, [A thing well understood by the INITIATED, both at HOME and

ABROAD.] the two societies might be inoculated with each other. But

even here some tact would be required; the Medico-Botanical is a

little particular about the purity of its written documents, and lately

attributed blame to one of its officers for some slight tampering with

them, a degree of illiberality which the Council of the Royal Society

are far from imitating.

The Geological and the Astronomical Societies nourish no feelings of

resentment to the parent institution for their early persecution; and

though they have no inducement to seek, would scarcely refuse any union

which might be generally advantageous to science.

CONCLUSION.

In a work on the Decline of Science, at a period when England has so

recently lost two of its brightest ornaments, I should hardly be excused

if I omitted to devote a few words to the names of Wollaston and of

Davy. Until the warm feelings of surviving kindred and admiring friends

shall be cold as the grave from which remembrance vainly recalls

their cherished forms, invested with all the life and energy of

recent existence, the volumes of their biography must be sealed. Their

contemporaries can expect only to read their eloge.

In habits of intercourse with both those distinguished individuals,

sufficiently frequent to mark the curiously different structure of their

minds, I was yet not on such terms even with him I most esteemed, as to

view his great qualities through that medium which is rarely penetrated

by the eyes of long and very intimate friendship.

Caution and precision were the predominant features of the character

of Wollaston, and those who are disposed to reduce the number of

principles, would perhaps justly trace the precision which adorned

his philosophical, to the extreme caution which pervaded his moral

character. It may indeed be questioned whether the latter quality will

not in all persons of great abilities produce the former.

Ambition constituted a far larger ingredient in the character of

Davy, and with the daring hand of genius he grasped even the remotest

conclusions to which a theory led him. He seemed to think invention a

more common attribute than it really is, and hastened, as soon as he was

in possession of a new fact or a new principle, to communicate it to the

world, doubtful perhaps lest he might not be anticipated; but, confident

in his own powers, he was content to give to others a chance of reaping

some part of that harvest, the largest portion of which he knew must

still fall to his own share.

Dr. Wollaston, on the other hand, appreciated more truly the rarity of

the inventive faculty; and, undeterred by the fear of being anticipated,

when he had contrived a new instrument, or detected a new principle, he

brought all the information that he could collect from others, or which

arose from his own reflection, to bear upon it for years, before he

delivered it to the world.

The most singular characteristic of Wollaston's mind was the plain and

distinct line which separated what he knew from what he did not know;

and this again, arising from his precision, might be traced to caution.

It would, however, have been visible to such an extent in few except

himself, for there were very few so perfectly free from vanity and

affectation. To this circumstance may be attributed a peculiarity of

manner in the mode in which he communicated information to those

who sought it from him, which was to many extremely disagreeable. He

usually, by a few questions, ascertained precisely how much the inquirer

knew upon the subject, or the exact point at which his ignorance

commenced, a process not very agreeable to the vanity of mankind; taking

up the subject at this point, he would then very clearly and shortly

explain it.

His acquaintance with mathematics was very limited. Many years since,

when I was an unsuccessful candidate for a professorship of mathematics,

I applied to Dr. W. for a recommendation; he declined it, on the ground

of its not being his pursuit. I told him I asked it, because I thought

it would have weight, to which he replied, that it ought to have none

whatever. There is no doubt his view was the just one. Yet such is the

state of ignorance which exists on these subjects, that I have several

times heard him mentioned as one of the greatest mathematicians of the

age. [This of course could only have happened in England.] But in this

as in all other points, the precision with which he comprehended

and retained all he had ever learned, especially of the elementary

applications of mathematics to physics, was such, that he possessed

greater command over those subjects than many of far more extensive

knowledge.

In associating with Wollaston, you perceived that the predominant

principle was to avoid error; in the society of Davy, you saw that it

was the desire to see and make known truth. Wollaston never could have

been a poet; Davy might have been a great one.

A question which I put, successively, to each of these distinguished

philosophers, will show how very differently a subject may be viewed by

minds even of the highest order.

About the time Mr. Perkins was making his experiments on the compression

of water, I was much struck with the mechanical means he had brought to

bear on the subject, and was speculating on other applications of it,

which I will presently mention.

Meeting Dr. Wollaston one morning in the shop of a bookseller, I

proposed this question: If two volumes of hydrogen and one of oxygen are

mixed together in a vessel, and if by mechanical pressure they can be so

condensed as to become of the same specific gravity as water, will the

gases under these circumstances unite and form water? "What do you think

they will do?" said Dr. W. I replied, that I should rather expect they

would unite. "I see no reason to suppose it," said he. I then inquired

whether he thought the experiment worth making. He answered, that he did

not, for that he should think it would certainly not succeed.

A few days after, I proposed the same question to Sir Humphry Davy. He

at once said, "they will become water, of course;" and on my inquiring

whether he thought the experiment worth making, he observed that it was

a good experiment, but one which it was hardly necessary to make, as it

must succeed.

These were off-hand answers, which it might perhaps be hardly fair to

have recorded, had they been of persons of less eminent talent: and it

adds to the curiosity of the circumstance to mention, that I believe Dr.

Wollaston's reason for supposing no union would take place, arose

from the nature of the electrical relations of the two gases remaining

unchanged, an objection which did not weigh with the philosopher whose

discoveries had given birth to it.

[The result of the experiment appeared, and still appears to me, to be

of the highest importance; and I will shortly state the views with which

it was connected. The next great discovery in chemistry to definite

proportions, will be to find means of forming all the simple unions of

one atom with one, with two, or with more of say other substance: and it

occurred to me that the gaseous bodies presented the fairest chance of

success; and that if wishing, for instance, to unite four atoms of one

substance with one of another, we could, by mechanical means, reduce the

mixed gases to the same specific gravity as the substance would possess

which resulted from their union, then either that such union would

actually take place, or the particles of the two substances would be

most favourably situated for the action of caloric, electricity, or

other causes, to produce the combination. It would indeed seem to

follow, that if combination should take place under such circumstances,

then the most probable proportion in which the atoms would unite, should

be that which furnished a fluid of the least specific gravity: but

until the experiments are made, it is by no means certain that other

combinations might not be produced.]

The singular minuteness of the particles of bodies submitted by Dr.

Wollaston to chemical analysis, has excited the admiration of all

those who have had the good fortune to witness his experiments; and the

methods he employed deserve to be much more widely known.

It appears to me that a great mistake exists on the subject. It has been

adduced as one of those facts which prove the extraordinary acuteness of

the bodily senses of the individual,--a circumstance which, if it

were true, would add but little to his philosophical character; I am,

however, inclined to view it in a far different light, and to see in it

one of the natural results of the admirable precision of his knowledge.

During the many opportunities I have enjoyed of seeing his minute

experiments, I remember but one instance in which I noticed any

remarkable difference in the acuteness of his bodily faculties, either

of his hearing, his sight, or of his sense of smell, from those of other

persons who possessed them in a good degree. [This was at Mr. South's

observatory, and the object was, the dots on the declination circle of

his equatorial; but, in this instance, Dr. Wollaston did not attempt to

TEACH ME HOW TO SEE THEM.]

He never showed me an almost microscopic wire, which was visible to his,

and invisible to my own eye: even in the beautiful experiments he made

relative to sounds inaudible to certain ears, he never produced a tone

which was unheard by mine, although sensible to his ear; and I believe

this will be found to have been the case by most of those whose minds

had been much accustomed to experimental inquiries, and who possessed

their faculties unimpaired by illness or by age.

It was a much more valuable property on which the success of such

inquiries depended. It arose from the perfect attention which he could

command, and the minute precision with which he examined every object. A

striking illustration of the fact that an object is frequently not seen,

FROM NOT KNOWING HOW TO SEE IT, rather than from any defect in the organ

of vision, occurred to me some years since, when on a visit at Slough.

Conversing with Mr. Herschel on the dark lines seen in the solar

spectrum by Fraunhofer, he inquired whether I had seen them; and on my

replying in the negative, and expressing a great desire to see them,

he mentioned the extreme difficulty he had had, even with Fraunhofer's

description in his hand and the long time which it had cost him in

detecting them. My friend then added, "I will prepare the apparatus, and

put you in such a position that they shall be visible, and yet you shall

look for them and not find them: after which, while you remain in the

same position, I will instruct you how to see them, and you shall see

them, and not merely wonder you did not see them before, but you shall

find it impossible to look at the spectrum without seeing them."

On looking as I was directed, notwithstanding the previous warning, I

did not see them; and after some time I inquired how they might be seen,

when the prediction of Mr. Herschel was completely fulfilled.

It was this attention to minute phenomena which Dr. Wollaston applied

with such powerful effect to chemistry. In the ordinary cases of

precipitation the cloudiness is visible in a single drop as well as in

a gallon of a solution; and in those cases where the cloudiness is so

slight, as to require a mass of fluid to render it visible, previous

evaporation, quickly performed on slips of window glass, rendered the

solution more concentrated.

The true value of this minute chemistry arises from its cheapness and

the extreme rapidity with which it can be accomplished: it may, in hands

like those of Wollaston, be used for discovery, but not for measure. I

have thought it more necessary to place this subject on what I consider

its true grounds, for two reasons. In the first place, I feel that

injustice has been done to a distinguished philosopher in attributing

to some of his bodily senses that excellence which I think is proved to

have depended on the admirable training of his intellectual faculties.

And, in the next place, if I have established the fact, whilst it

affords us better means of judging of such observations as lay claim to

an accuracy "MORE THAN HUMAN," it also opens, to the patient inquirer

into truth, a path by which he may acquire powers that he would

otherwise have thought were only the gift of nature to a favoured few.

APPENDIX, No. 1.

In presenting to my readers the account of the meeting of men of science

at Berlin, in the autumn of 1828, I am happy to be able to state, that

its influence has been most beneficial, and that the annual meeting

to be held in 1831, will take place at Vienna, the Emperor of Austria

having expressed a wish that every facility which his capital affords

should be given to promote its objects.

It is gratifying to find that a country, which has hitherto been

considered adverse to the progress of knowledge, should become convinced

of its value; and it is sincerely to be hoped, that every one of the

numerous members of the Society will show, by his conduct, that the

paths of science are less likely than any others to interfere with those

of politics.

ACCOUNT OF THE GREAT CONGRESS OF PHILOSOPHERS AT BERLIN, ON THE 18TH OF

SEPTEMBER 1828. FROM THE EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, APRIL, 1829.

The existence of a large society of cultivators of the natural sciences

meeting annually at some great capital, or some central town of Europe,

is a circumstance almost unknown to us, and deserving of our attention,

from the important advantages which may arise from it.

About eight years ago, Dr. Okens, of Munich, suggested a plan for an

annual meeting of all Germans who cultivated the sciences of medicine

and botany. The first meeting, of about forty members, took place at

Leipsic, in 1822, and it was successively held at Halle, Wurtzburg,

Frankfort on the Maine, Dresden, Munich, and Berlin. All those who had

printed a certain number of sheets of their inquiries on these subjects

were considered members of this academy.

The great advantages which resulted to these sciences from the

communication of observations from all quarters of Germany, soon induced

an extension of the plan, and other departments of natural knowledge

were admitted, until, at the last meeting, the cultivators even of pure

mathematics were found amongst the ranks of this academy.

Several circumstances, independent of the form and constitution of the

academy, contributed to give unwonted splendour to the last meeting,

which took place at Berlin in the middle of September of the last year.

The capital selected for its temporary residence is scarcely surpassed

by any in Europe in the number and celebrity of its savans.

The taste for knowledge possessed by the reigning family, has made

knowledge itself fashionable; and the severe sufferings of the Prussians

previous to the war, by which themselves and Europe were freed, have

impressed on them so strongly the lesson that "knowledge is power," that

its effects are visible in every department of the government; and there

is no country in Europe in which talents and genius so surely open for

their possessors the road to wealth and distinction.

Another circumstance also contributed its portion to increase the

numbers of the meeting of the past year. The office of president, which

is annually changed, was assigned to M. Alexander de Humboldt. The

universality of his acquirements, which have left no branch within the

wide range of science indifferent or unexplored, has connected him by

friendship with almost all the most celebrated philosophers of the age;

whilst the polished amenity of his manners, and that intense desire of

acquiring and of spreading knowledge, which so peculiarly characterizes

his mind, renders him accessible to all strangers, and insures for them

the assistance of his counsel in their scientific pursuits, and the

advantage of being made known to all those who are interested or

occupied in similar inquiries.

Professor Lichtenstein, (Director of the Museum of Zoology,) as

secretary of the academy, was indefatigable in his attentions, and most

ably seconded the wishes of its distinguished president.

These two gentlemen, assisted by several of the residents at Berlin,

undertook the numerous preliminary arrangements necessary for the

accommodation of the meeting.

On the 18th of September, 1828, there were assembled at Berlin 377

members of the academy, whose names and residences (in Berlin) were

printed in a small pamphlet, and to each name was attached a number,

to indicate his seat in the great concert room, in which the morning

meetings took place. Each member was also provided with an engraved card

of the hall of meeting, on which the numbers of the seats were printed

in black ink, and his own peculiar seat marked in red ink, so that every

person immediately found his own place, and knew where to look for any

friend whom he might wish to find.

At the hour appointed for the opening of the meeting, the members being

assembled, and the galleries and orchestra being filled by an assemblage

of a large part of the rank and beauty of the capital, and the

side-boxes being occupied by several branches of the royal family, and

by the foreign ambassadors, the session of the academy was opened by the

eloquent address of the president.

SPEECH made at the Opening of the Society of German Naturalists and

Natural Philosophers at Berlin, the 18th of September, 1828.--By

ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT.

Since through your choice, which does me so much honour, I am permitted

to open this meeting, the first duty which I have to discharge is one of

gratitude. The distinction which has been conferred on him who has never

yet been able to attend your excellent society, is not the reward of

scientific efforts, or of feeble and persevering attempts to discover

new phenomena, or to draw the light of knowledge from the unexplored

depths of nature. A finer feeling, however, directed your attention to

me. You have assured me, that while, during an absence of many years,

and in a distant quarter of the globe, I was labouring in the same

cause with yourselves, I was not a stranger in your thoughts. You have

likewise greeted my return home, that, by the sacred tie of gratitude,

you might bind me still longer and closer to our common country.

What, however, can the picture of this, our native land, present more

agreeable to the mind, than the assembly which we receive to-day for

the first time within our walls; from the banks of the Neckar, the

birth-place of Kepler and of Schiller, to the remotest border of the

Baltic plains; from hence to the mouths of the Rhine, where, under the

beneficent influence of commerce, the treasuries of exotic nature have

for centuries been collected and investigated, the friends of nature,

inspired with the same zeal, and, urged by the same passion, flock

together to this assembly. Everywhere, where the German language is

used, and its peculiar structure affects the spirit and disposition

of the people. From the Great European Alps, to the other side of the

Weichsel, where, in the country of Copernicus, astronomy rose to renewed

splendour; everywhere in the extensive dominions of the German nation

we attempt to discover the secret operations of nature, whether in the

heavens, or in the deepest problems of mechanics, or in the interior of

the earth, or in the finely woven tissues of organic structure.

Protected by noble princes, this assembly has annually increased in

interest and extent. Every distinction which difference of religion

or form of government can occasion is here annulled. Germany manifests

itself as it were in its intellectual unity; and since knowledge of

truth and performance of duty are the highest object of morality,

that feeling of unity weakens none of the bonds which the religion,

constitution, and laws of our country, have rendered dear to each of

us. Even this emulation in mental struggles has called forth (as the

glorious history of our country tells us,) the fairest blossoms of

humanity, science, and art.

The assembly of German naturalists and natural philosophers since its

last meeting, when it was so hospitably received at Munich, has, through

the flattering interest of neighbouring states and academies, shone

with peculiar lustre. Allied nations have renewed the ancient alliance

between Germany and the ancient Scandinavian North.

Such an interest deserves acknowledgment the more, because it

unexpectedly increases the mass of facts and opinions which are

here brought into one common and useful union. It also recalls lofty

recollections into the mind of the naturalist. Scarcely half a century

has elapsed since Linne appears, in the boldness of the undertakings

which he has attempted and accomplished, as one of the greatest men of

the last century. His glory, however bright, has not rendered Europe

blind to the merits of Scheele and Bergman. The catalogue of these great

names is not completed; but lest I shall offend noble modesty, I dare

not speak of the light which is still flowing in richest profusion

from the North, nor mention the discoveries in the chemical nature of

substances, in the numerical relation of their elements, or the eddying

streams of electro-magnetic powers. [The philosophers here referred to

are Berzelius and Oersted.] May those excellent persons, who, deterred

neither by perils of sea or land, have hastened to our meeting from

Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland, England, and Poland, point our the way

to other strangers in succeeding years, so that by turns every part

of Germany may enjoy the effects of scientific communication with the

different nations of Europe.

But although I must restrain the expression of my personal feelings

in presence of this assembly, I must be permitted at least to name the

patriarchs of our national glory, who are detained from us by a regard

for those lives so dear to their country;--Goethe, whom the great

creations of poetical fancy have not prevented from penetrating the

ARCANA of nature, and who now in rural solitude mourns for his princely

friend, as Germany for one of her greatest ornaments;--Olbers, who has

discovered two bodies where he had already predicted they were to be

found;--the greatest anatomists of our age--Soemmering, who, with equal

zeal, has investigated the wonders of organic structure, and the spots

and FACULAE of the sun, (condensations and openings of the photosphere;)

Blumenbach, whose pupil I have the honour to be, who, by his works and

his immortal eloquence, has inspired everywhere a love of comparative

anatomy, physiology, and the general history of nature, and who

has laboured diligently for half a century. How could I resist the

temptation to adorn my discourse with names which posterity will repeat,

as we are not favoured with their presence?

These observations on the literary wealth of our native country, and the

progressive developement of our institution, lead us naturally to

the obstructions which will arise from the increasing number of our

fellow-labourers, The chief object of this assembly does not consist,

as in other societies whose sphere is more limited, in the mutual

interchange of treatises, or in innumerable memoirs, destined to be

printed in some general collection. The principal object of this Society

is, to bring those personally together who are engaged in the same field

of science. It is the immediate, and therefore more obvious interchange

of ideas, whether they present themselves as facts, opinions, or

doubts. It is the foundation of friendly connexion which throws light

on science, adds cheerfulness to life, and gives patience and amenity to

the manners.

In the most flourishing period of ancient Greece, the distinction

between words and writing first manifested itself most strongly amongst

a race, which had raised itself to the most splendid intellectual

superiority, and to whose latest descendants, as preserved from the

shipwreck of nations, we still consecrate our most anxious wishes. It

was not the difficulty of interchange of ideas alone, nor the want of

German science, which has spread thought as on wings through the world,

and insured it a long continuance, that then induced the friends of

philosophy and natural history in Magna Graecia and Asia Minor to wander

on long journeys. That ancient race knew the inspiring influence of

conversation as it extemporaneously, freely, and prudently penetrates

the tissue of scientific opinions and doubts. The discovery of the truth

without difference of opinion is unattainable, because the truth, in its

greatest extent, can never be recognized by all, and at the same time.

Each step, which seems to bring the explorer of nature nearer to his

object, only carries him to the threshold of new labyrinths. The mass of

doubt does not diminish, but spreads like a moving cloud over other and

new fields; and whoever has called that a golden period, when difference

of opinions, or, as some are accustomed to express it, the disputes

of the learned, will be finished, has as imperfect a conception of the

wants of science, and of its continued advancement, as a person who

expects that the same opinions in geognosy, chemistry, or physiology,

will be maintained for several centuries.

The founders of this society, with a deep sense of the unity of nature,

have combined in the completest manner, all the branches of physical

knowledge, and the historical, geometrical, and experimental philosophy.

The names of natural historian and natural philosopher are here,

therefore, nearly synonymous, chained by a terrestrial link to the type

of the lower animals. Man completes the scale of higher organization. In

his physiological and pathological qualities, he scarcely presents to us

a distinct class of beings. As to what has brought him to this exalted

object of physical study, and has raised him to general scientific

investigation, belongs principally to this society. Important as it

is not to break that link which embraces equally the investigation

of organic and inorganic nature, still the increasing ties and daily

developement of this institution renders it necessary, besides the

general meeting which is destined for these halls, to have specific

meetings for single branches of science. For it is only in such

contracted circles,--it is only among men whom reciprocity of studies

has brought together, that verbal discussions can take place. Without

this sort of communication, would the voluntary association of men in

search of truth be deprived of an inspiring principle.

Among the preparations which are made in this city for the advancement

of the society, attention has been principally paid to the possibility

of such a subdivision into sections. The hope that these preparations

will meet with your approbation, imposes upon me the duty of reminding

you, that, although you had entrusted to two travellers, equally, the

duty of making these arrangements, yet it is to one alone, my noble

friend, M. Lichtenstein, that the merit of careful precaution and

indefatigable activity is due. Out of respect to the scientific spirit

which animates the Society of German Naturalists and Natural Philosophy,

and in acknowledgment of the utility of their efforts, government have

seconded all our wishes with the greatest cheerfulness.

In the vicinity of the place of meeting, which has in this manner been

prepared for our general and special labours, are situated the museums

dedicated to anatomy, zoology, oryctognosy, and geology. They exhibit to

the naturalist a rich mine for observation and critical discussion. The

greater number of these well-arranged collections have existed, like

the University of Berlin, scarcely twenty years. The oldest of them, to

which the Botanical Garden, (one of the richest in Europe) belongs, have

during this period not only been increased, but entirely remodelled. The

amusement and instruction derived from such institutions, call to our

minds, with deep feelings of gratitude, that they are the work of that

great monarch, who modestly and in simple grandeur, adorns every year

this royal city with new treasures of nature and art; and what is of

still greater value than the treasures themselves,--what inspires every

Prussian with youthful strength, and with an enthusiastic love for the

ancient reigning family,--that he graciously attaches to himself every

species of talent, and extends with confidence his royal protection to

the free cultivation of the understanding.

This was followed by a paper on magnetism, by Professor Oersted; and

several other memoirs were then read.

The arrival of so many persons of similar pursuit, (for 464 members were

present,) rendered it convenient to have some ordinary, at which those

who chose might dine, and introduce their friends or families. This had

been foreseen, and his Majesty had condescended to allow the immense

building used for the exercise of his troops, to be employed for this

purpose. One-third of it was floored on the occasion, and tables were

arranged, at which, on one occasion, 850 persons sat down to dinner. On

the evening of the first day, M. de Humboldt gave a large SOIREE in the

concert rooms attached to the theatre. About 1200 persons assembled on

this occasion, and his Majesty the King of Prussia honoured with his

presence the fete of his illustrious chamberlain. The nobility of the

country, foreign princes, and foreign ambassadors, were present. It

was gratifying to observe the princes of the blood mingling with the

cultivators of science, and to see the heir-apparent to the throne,

during the course of the evening, engaged in conversation with those

most celebrated for their talents, of his own, or of other countries.

Nor were the minor arrangements of the evening beneath the consideration

of the President. The words of the music selected for the concert,

were printed and distributed to the visitors. The names of the most

illustrious philosophers which Germany had produced, were inscribed in

letters of gold at the end of the great concert room.

In the first rank amongst these stood a name which, England, too,

enrolls amongst the brightest in her scientific annals; and proud, as

well she may be, of having fostered and brought to maturity the genius

of the first Herschel, she has reaped an ample reward in being able to

claim as entirely her own, the inheritor of his talents and his name.

The six succeeding days were occupied, in the morning, by a meeting

of the academy, at which papers of general interest were read. In

the afternoon, through the arrangement of M. de Humboldt and M.

Lichtenstein, various rooms were appropriated for different sections of

the academy. In one, the chemical philosophers attended to some

chemical memoir, whilst the botanists assembled in another room, the

physiologists in a third, and the natural philosophers in a fourth. Each

attended to the reading of papers connected with their several sciences.

Thus every member was at liberty to choose that section in which he felt

most interest at the moment, and he had at all times power of access to

the others. The evenings were generally spent at some of the SOIREES

of the savans, resident at Berlin, whose hospitality and attentions to

their learned brethren of other countries were unbounded. During the

unoccupied hours of the morning, the collections of natural history,

which are rapidly rising into importance, were open to examination; and

the various professors and directors who assisted the stranger in his

inquiries, left him equally gratified by the knowledge and urbanity of

those who so kindly aided him.

A map of Europe was printed, on which those towns only appeared which

had sent representatives to this scientific congress; and the numbers

sent by different kingdoms appeared by the following table, which was

attached to it;--

Russia......... 1

Austria........ 0

England........ 1

Holland........ 2

Denmark........ 7

France ........ 1

Sardinia ....... 0

Prussia........ 95

Bavaria........ 12

Hanover........ 5

Saxony ........ 21

Wirtemburg ...... 2

Sweden ........ 13

Naples ........ 1

Poland ........ 3

German States..... 43

--- 206

Berlin ....... 172

--- 378

The proportion in which the cultivators of different sciences appeared,

was not easy to ascertain, because there were few amongst the more

eminent who had not added to more than one branch of human knowledge.

The following table, though not professing to be very accurate, will

afford, perhaps, a tolerably fair view:--

Geometers............. 11

Astronomers........... 5

Natural Philosophers . 23

-- 39

Mines............ 5

Mineralogy ...... 16

Geology.......... 9

-- 30

Chemistry........... 18

Geography........... 8

Anatomy............. 12

Zoology............ 14

Natural History.... 8

Botany.............. 35

-- 57

Physicians....... 175

Amateurs ....... 9

Various ......... 35

---381

A medal was struck in commemoration of this meeting, and it was proposed

that it should form the first of a series, which should comprise all

those persons most celebrated for their scientific discoveries in the

past and present age.

APPENDIX, No. 2.

An examination into some charges brought against one of the twenty-four

candidates, mentioned in a note as having their names suspended in the

meeting-room of the Royal Society, at one time, has caused a printed

pamphlet to be circulated amongst the members of the Society. Of the

charges themselves I shall offer no opinion, but entreat every member

to judge for himself. I shall, however, make one extract, which tends to

show how the ranks of the Society are recruited.

EXTRACT FROM A PRINTED LETTER FROM A. F. M. TO J. G. CHILDREN, ESQ.

DATED, 22, UPPER BEDFORD-PLACE, MARCH 13, 1830.

"When I wished you to Propose me at the Geological Society, you asked me

why you should not propose me also at the Royal Society; and my answer

was, that it was an honour to which I did not think I could aspire; that

my talents were too insignificant to warrant such pretensions. Many days

passed, and still you pressed me on the subject, because your partiality

made you think me deserving of the honour; but I resisted, really

through modesty, not that I did not covet the distinction, until

something was said of my paper on the meteoric mass of iron of Brazil,

which was published some years ago in the Transactions of the Royal

Society; when you insisted on proposing me, and I assented gratefully,

because I was and am desirous of being a Fellow of the Royal Society, if

I can be supposed worthy of having my name so honourably enrolled."

EXTRACT FROM A LETTER OF J. G. CHILDREN, ESQ. TO A. F. M. ESQ. DATED,

BRITISH MUSEUM, MARCH 24, 1830.

"All that you have said respecting your being a candidate for admission

into the Royal Society, is correct to the letter. I pressed the subject

upon you, and I would do it again to-morrow, were it necessary."

Here, then, we find Mr. Children, who has been on the Council of the

Royal Society, and who was, a few years since, one of its Secretaries,

pressing one of his friends to become, and actually insisting on

proposing him as, a Fellow of the Royal Society, He must have been

well aware of the feelings which prevail amongst the Council as to

the propriety of such a step, and by publishing the fact, seems quite

satisfied that such a course is advantageous to the interests of

the Society. That similar applications were not unfrequently made in

private, is well known; but it remains for the Society to consider

whether, now they are publicly and officially announced to them, it

will sanction this mode of augmenting the already numerous list of its

fellows.

APPENDIX, No. 3,

LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY, WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE

PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, OR HAVE BEEN ON THE COUNCIL.

N. B.--The Numbers are made up to the present year for the Papers, but

only to 1827 for Members of the Council.

No. of No. of

Papers years on

printed Council.

in Phil.

Trans.-------- -------

3 Aberdeen, Earl of.

3 3 Abernethy, John.

2 Allan, Thomas.

3 Allen, William.

1 Arden, Lord.

1 Atholl, Duke of.

7 2 Babbage, Charles,

1 Babington, William.

1 2 Baily,Francis.

9 Barlow, Peter. (C)

2 Barnard, Sir F. Augusta.

5 Barrow, John.

2 Bauer, Francis.

1 Bayley, John.

1 Beaufort, Francis.

2 Beaufoy, Henry.

5 Bell, Charles.

1 Bingley, Robert.

1 Blackburne, John.

3 Blake, William.

1 3 Blane, Sir Gilbert.

1 1 Blizard, Sir William.

1 1 Bostock, John.

12 10 Brande, Wm. Thos. (C)

16 Brewster, David. (C)

6 1 Brodie, B. Collins. (C)

1 Bromhead Sir E. F.

3 Brougham, Henry.

1 Browne, Henry.

1 Brown, Robert.

2 Brownlow, Earl.

1 Buckland, Rev. W. (C)

1 Burney, Rev. C. Parr.

1 Canterbury, Archbp. of.

1 Carew, Rt. Hon. R. P.

7 Carlisle, Sir Anthony.

2 Carlisle, Nicholas.

1 Carne, Joseph.

1 Carrington, Sir C. E.

2 Charleville, Earl of.

7 2 Chenevix, Richard. (C)

3 4 Children, John George.

10 Christie, Sam. Hunter.

1 Clerk, Sir George.

2 Clift, William.

9 Cloyne, Bishop of. (C)

2 Colby, Colonel Thomas.

1 Colebrooke, Henry T.

2 2 Cooper, Sir Astley P. (C)

1 Crichton, Sir Alex.

5 Croker, John Wilson.

1 Cullum, Sir T. Gery.

2 Dalton, John.

2 Darnley, Earl of

1 Darwin, Robert Waring.

1 Davis, John Francis.

2 Davy, Edmund.

13 Davy, John.

3 Dyllwin, Lewis Weston.

1 Dollond, George.

1 Dudley and Ward, Visc.

2 Earle, Henry.

1 Egremont, Earl of.

1 Fallows, Rev. Fearon.

8 Faraday, Michael.

1 Farnborough, Lord.

1 Fisher, Rev. George.

1 Fly, Rev. Henry.

2 Foster, Henry.

1 1 Frankland, Sir Thomas.

1 Gibbes, Sir Geo, Smith.

2 13 Gilbert, Davies.

2 Gillies, John.

5 Goldingham, John.

3 1 Gompertz, Benjamin.

1 Goodenough, George T.

2 Gordon, Sir James W.

3 Granville, Augustus B.

1 Greatorex, Thomas.

1 Greenough, Geo.Bellas.

1 Griffiths, John.

3 1 Groombridge, Stephen.

1 Halford, Sir Henry.

2 Hall, Basil.

1 Hamilton, Wm. Rich.

2 Hardwicke, Earl of.

2 Harvey, George.

1 Harwood, J.

16 10 Hatchett, Charles. (C)

1 Hawkins, John.

2 2 Heberden, William.

9 Hellins, Rev. John, (C)

1 Henley, Morton Lord.

10 Henry, William. (C)

12 6 Herschel, John F.W. (C)

1 Hoare, Henry Hugh

1 Hoare, Sir Richard Colt.

2 Hobhouse, Sir Benj.

1 Holland, Henry.

109 16 Home, Sir Everard. (C)

2 Hope, Thomas Charles.

1 Hosack, David.

1 1 Horsburgh, James.

1 Howard, Luke.

2 Hume, Sir Abraham.

7 2 Ivory, James.C.

1 Jekyll, Joseph.

4 1 Johnson, Jas. Rawlins.

13 7 Kater, Capt. Henry. (C)

2 Kidd, John.

24 1 Knight, Thomas A. (C)

1 1 Konig, Charles.

2 Lambert, Aylmer B.

1 Lansdowne, Marquis of.

1 1 Latham, John.

2 Lax, Rev. William.

1 Leach, William Elford.

1 Lowther, Viscount.

2 Macartney, James.

2 Macdonald, Lieut. Col.

1 Mac Grigor, Sir James.

2 Mac Leay, Alexander.

1 Mansfield, Earl of

4 11 Marsden, William.

1 Mathias, Thomas Jas.

3 Maton, William George.

1 Miller, Lieut. Col. G.

2 Montagu, Matthew.

7 4 Morgan, William.

1 Mount Edgecumbe, Earl of.

3 Murdoch, Thomas.

2 Nicholl, Rt. Hon. Sir J.

1 Norfolk, Duke of.

2 Ord, Craven.

1 Parry, Charles Henry.

1 Pepys, Sir Lucas.

6 2 Pepys, Wm. Hasledine.

7 Philip, A. P. Wilson.

1 Phillips, Richard.

2 Pitt, William Morton.

1 29 Planta, Joseph.

19 17 Pond, John. (C)

2 Powell, Rev. Baden.

2 Prinsep, James.

4 1 Prout William.

1 Rackett, Rev. Thomas.

1 Redesdale, Lord.

2 Reeves, John.

5 3 Rennell, James (C)

1 Rennie, George.

4 Ritchie,

1 Robertson, James.

1 Rogers, Samuel.

2 1 Roget, Peter Mark.

3 Rudge, Edward.

12 Sabine, Edward. (C)

2 Sabine, Joseph.

1 St. Aubyn, Sir John.

3 Scoresby, jun. William.

2 Scott, John Corse.

3 1 Seppings, Sir Robert. (C)

1 Sewell, Sir John.

3 Somerset, Duke of.

3 Sotheby, William.

3 2 South, James. (C)

5 Spencer, Earl.

3 Stanley, Sir John Thos.

3 Staunton, Sir Geo. Thos.

2 Stowell,Lord.

1 Sumner, George Holme.

1 Thomas, Honoratus L.

2 Thomson, Thomas.

1 Tiarks, Dr. John Lewis.

1 Troughton, Edward. (C)

2 Ure, Andrew.

2 Warburton, Henry.

1 Weaver, Thomas.

1 Whewell, William.

3 Whidbey, Joseph.

2 3 Wilkins, Charles.

3 Williams, John Lloyd.

1 1 Wilson, Sir Giffin.

2 Wilson, Gloucester.

1 Yorke, Rt. Hon. Chas.

I had intended to have printed a list of those persons to whom the Royal

Society had in past years awarded the Copley medals, and the reasons for

which they were given; but having applied to the Council for permission

to employ an amanuensis, to copy those awards, either from the minutes,

or from the volumes of the Philosophical Transactions, I was surprised

at receiving a refusal. I confess it appeared to me, that as a whole,

those adjudications did us credit, although I doubted the propriety

of many individual cases. As, however, the Council seem to have had a

different opinion, and as I had made the application through courtesy,

I shall decline printing a list, every individual portion of which has

been already published in many ways, although the whole has never been

printed in a collected form.

End of 's Decline of Science in England, by Charles Babbage