Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece and Rome

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_A HAND-BOOK OF MYTHOLOGY._

* * * * *

THE

MYTHS AND LEGENDS

OF

ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME.

BY

E. M. BERENS.

_ILLUSTRATED FROM ANTIQUE SCULPTURES._

[Illustration]

NEW YORK:

MAYNARD, MERRILL, & CO.,

43, 45 AND 47 EAST TENTH STREET.

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{i}

PREFACE.

* * * * *

The want of an interesting work on Greek and Roman mythology, suitable for

the requirements of both boys and girls, has long been recognized by the

principals of our advanced schools. The study of the classics themselves,

even where the attainments of the pupil have rendered this feasible, has

not been found altogether successful in giving to the student a clear and

succinct idea of the religious beliefs of the ancients, and it has been

suggested that a work which would so deal with the subject as to render it

at once interesting and instructive would be hailed as a valuable

introduction to the study of classic authors, and would be found to assist

materially the labours of both master and pupil.

In endeavouring to supply this want I have sought to place before the

reader a lifelike picture of the deities of classical times as they were

conceived and worshipped by the ancients themselves, and thereby to awaken

in the minds of young students a desire to become more intimately

acquainted with the noble productions of classical antiquity.

It has been my aim to render the Legends, which form the second portion of

the work, a picture, as it were, of old Greek life; its customs, its

superstitions, and its princely hospitalities, for which reason they are

given at somewhat greater length than is usual in works of the kind.

In a chapter devoted to the purpose some interesting particulars have been

collected respecting the public worship of the ancient Greeks and Romans

(more especially of the former), to which is subjoined an account of their

principal festivals.

I may add that no pains have been spared in order that, without passing

over details the omission of which would have {ii} marred the completeness

of the work, not a single passage should be found which could possibly

offend the most scrupulous delicacy; and also that I have purposely treated

the subject with that reverence which I consider due to every religious

system, however erroneous.

It is hardly necessary to dwell upon the importance of the study of

Mythology: our poems, our novels, and even our daily journals teem with

classical allusions; nor can a visit to our art galleries and museums be

fully enjoyed without something more than a mere superficial knowledge of a

subject which has in all ages inspired painters, sculptors, and poets. It

therefore only remains for me to express a hope that my little work may

prove useful, not only to teachers and scholars, but also to a large class

of general readers, who, in whiling away a leisure hour, may derive some

pleasure and profit from its perusal.

E. M. BERENS.

* * * * *

{iii}

CONTENTS.

PART I.--MYTHS.

Page

Introduction, 7

FIRST DYNASTY.

ORIGIN OF THE WORLD--

URANUS AND GAEA (Coelus and Terra), 11

SECOND DYNASTY.

CRONUS (Saturn), 14

RHEA (Ops), 18

DIVISION OF THE WORLD, 19

THEORIES AS TO THE ORIGIN OF MAN, 21

THIRD DYNASTY.

OLYMPIAN DIVINITIES--

ZEUS (Jupiter), 26

HERA (Juno), 38

PALLAS-ATHENE (Minerva), 43

THEMIS, 48

HESTIA (Vesta), 48

DEMETER (Ceres), 50

APHRODITE (Venus), 58

HELIOS (Sol), 61

EOS (Aurora), 67

PHOEBUS-APOLLO, 68

HECATE, 85

SELENE (Luna), 86

ARTEMIS (Diana), 87

HEPHAESTUS (Vulcan), 97

POSEIDON (Neptune), 101

{iv}

SEA DIVINITIES--

OCEANUS, 107

NEREUS, 108

PROTEUS, 108

TRITON AND THE TRITONS, 109

GLAUCUS, 109

THETIS, 110

THAUMAS, PHORCYS, AND CETO, 111

LEUCOTHEA, 111

THE SIRENS, 112

ARES (Mars), 112

NIKE (Victoria), 117

HERMES (Mercury), 117

DIONYSUS (Bacchus or Liber), 124

AIDES (Pluto), 130

PLUTUS, 137

MINOR DIVINITIES--

THE HARPIES, 137

ERINYES, EUMENIDES (Furiae, Dirae), 138

MOIRAE OR FATES (Parcae), 139

NEMESIS, 141

NIGHT AND HER CHILDREN--

NYX (Nox), 142

THANATOS (Mors), HYPNUS (Somnus), 142

MORPHEUS, 143

THE GORGONS, 144

GRAEAE, 145

SPHINX, 146

TYCHE (Fortuna) and ANANKE (Necessitas), 147

KER, 149

ATE, 149

MOMUS, 149

EROS (Cupid, Amor) and PSYCHE, 150

HYMEN, 154

IRIS, 155

HEBE (Juventas), 156

GANYMEDES, 157

{v}

THE MUSES, 157

PEGASUS, 162

THE HESPERIDES, 162

CHARITES OR GRACES, 163

HORAE (Seasons), 164

THE NYMPHS, 165

THE WINDS, 170

PAN (Faunus), 171

THE SATYRS, 174

PRIAPUS, 175

ASCLEPIAS (AEsculapius), 176

ROMAN DIVINITIES--

JANUS, 178

FLORA, 180

ROBIGUS, 180

POMONA, 180

VERTUMNUS, 181

PALES, 181

PICUS, 182

PICUMNUS AND PILUMNUS, 182

SILVANUS, 182

TERMINUS, 182

CONSUS, 183

LIBITINA, 183

LAVERNA, 184

COMUS, 184

CAMENAE, 184

GENII, 185

MANES, 185

PENATES, 187

PUBLIC WORSHIP OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS--

TEMPLES, 188

STATUES, 190

ALTARS, 191

PRIESTS, 191

SACRIFICES, 192

ORACLES, 194

SOOTHSAYERS, 195

{vi}

AUGURS, 196

FESTIVALS, 196

GREEK FESTIVALS--

ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES, 196

THESMOPHORIA, 197

DIONYSIA, 197

PANATHENAEA, 199

DAPHNEPHORIA, 200

ROMAN FESTIVALS--

SATURNALIA, 200

CEREALIA, 201

VESTALIA, 201

PART II.--LEGENDS.

CADMUS, 203

PERSEUS, 205

ION, 210

DAEDALUS AND ICARUS, 211

THE ARGONAUTS, 213

PELOPS, 232

HERACLES, 234

BELLEROPHON, 256

THESEUS, 259

OEDIPUS, 269

THE SEVEN AGAINST THEBES, 272

THE EPIGONI, 276

ALCMAEON AND THE NECKLACE, 277

THE HERACLIDAE, 280

THE SIEGE OF TROY, 283

RETURN OF THE GREEKS FROM TROY, 304

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{7}

MYTHS AND LEGENDS OF ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME.

* * * * *

PART I.--MYTHS.

* * * * *

INTRODUCTION.

Before entering upon the many strange beliefs of the ancient Greeks, and

the extraordinary number of gods they worshipped, we must first consider

what kind of beings these divinities were.

In appearance, the gods were supposed to resemble mortals, whom, however,

they far surpassed in beauty, grandeur, and strength; they were also more

commanding in stature, height being considered by the Greeks an attribute

of beauty in man or woman. They resembled human beings in their feelings

and habits, intermarrying and having children, and requiring daily

nourishment to recruit their strength, and refreshing sleep to restore

their energies. Their blood, a bright ethereal fluid called Ichor, never

engendered disease, and, when shed, had the power of producing new life.

The Greeks believed that the mental qualifications of their gods were of a

much higher order than those of men, but nevertheless, as we shall see,

they were not considered to be exempt from human passions, and we

frequently behold them actuated by revenge, deceit, and jealousy. They,

however, always punish the evil-doer, and visit with dire calamities any

impious mortal who dares to neglect their worship or despise their rites.

We often hear of them visiting mankind and partaking of their hospitality,

and not unfrequently both gods and goddesses {8} become attached to

mortals, with whom they unite themselves, the offspring of these unions

being called heroes or demi-gods, who were usually renowned for their great

strength and courage. But although there were so many points of resemblance

between gods and men, there remained the one great characteristic

distinction, viz., that the gods enjoyed immortality. Still, they were not

invulnerable, and we often hear of them being wounded, and suffering in

consequence such exquisite torture that they have earnestly prayed to be

deprived of their privilege of immortality.

The gods knew no limitation of time or space, being able to transport

themselves to incredible distances with the speed of thought. They

possessed the power of rendering themselves invisible at will, and could

assume the forms of men or animals as it suited their convenience. They

could also transform human beings into trees, stones, animals, &c., either

as a punishment for their misdeeds, or as a means of protecting the

individual, thus transformed, from impending danger. Their robes were like

those worn by mortals, but were perfect in form and much finer in texture.

Their weapons also resembled those used by mankind; we hear of spears,

shields, helmets, bows and arrows, &c., being employed by the gods. Each

deity possessed a beautiful chariot, which, drawn by horses or other

animals of celestial breed, conveyed them rapidly over land and sea

according to their pleasure. Most of these divinities lived on the summit

of Mount Olympus, each possessing his or her individual habitation, and all

meeting together on festive occasions in the council-chamber of the gods,

where their banquets were enlivened by the sweet strains of Apollo's lyre,

whilst the beautiful voices of the Muses poured forth their rich melodies

to his harmonious accompaniment. Magnificent temples were erected to their

honour, where they were worshipped with the greatest solemnity; rich gifts

were presented to them, and animals, and indeed sometimes human beings,

were sacrificed on their altars.

In the study of Grecian mythology we meet with some {9} curious, and what

may at first sight appear unaccountable notions. Thus we hear of terrible

giants hurling rocks, upheaving mountains, and raising earthquakes which

engulf whole armies; these ideas, however, may be accounted for by the

awful convulsions of nature, which were in operation in pre-historic times.

Again, the daily recurring phenomena, which to us, who know them to be the

result of certain well-ascertained laws of nature, are so familiar as to

excite no remark, were, to the early Greeks, matter of grave speculation,

and not unfrequently of alarm. For instance, when they heard the awful roar

of thunder, and saw vivid flashes of lightning, accompanied by black clouds

and torrents of rain, they believed that the great god of heaven was angry,

and they trembled at his wrath. If the calm and tranquil sea became

suddenly agitated, and the crested billows rose mountains high, dashing

furiously against the rocks, and threatening destruction to all within

their reach, the sea-god was supposed to be in a furious rage. When they

beheld the sky glowing with the hues of coming day they thought that the

goddess of the dawn, with rosy fingers, was drawing aside the dark veil of

night, to allow her brother, the sun-god, to enter upon his brilliant

career. Thus personifying all the powers of nature, this very imaginative

and highly poetical nation beheld a divinity in every tree that grew, in

every stream that flowed, in the bright beams of the glorious sun, and the

clear, cold rays of the silvery moon; for them the whole universe lived and

breathed, peopled by a thousand forms of grace and beauty.

The most important of these divinities may have been something more than

the mere creations of an active and poetical imagination. They were

possibly human beings who had so distinguished themselves in life by their

preeminence over their fellow-mortals that after death they were deified by

the people among whom they lived, and the poets touched with their magic

wand the details of lives, which, in more prosaic times, would simply have

been recorded as illustrious. {10}

It is highly probable that the reputed actions of these deified beings were

commemorated by bards, who, travelling from one state to another,

celebrated their praise in song; it therefore becomes exceedingly

difficult, nay almost impossible, to separate bare facts from the

exaggerations which never fail to accompany oral traditions.

In order to exemplify this, let us suppose that Orpheus, the son of Apollo,

so renowned for his extraordinary musical powers, had existed at the

present day. We should no doubt have ranked him among the greatest of our

musicians, and honoured him as such; but the Greeks, with their vivid

imagination and poetic license, exaggerated his remarkable gifts, and

attributed to his music supernatural influence over animate and inanimate

nature. Thus we hear of wild beasts tamed, of mighty rivers arrested in

their course, and of mountains being moved by the sweet tones of his voice.

The theory here advanced may possibly prove useful in the future, in

suggesting to the reader the probable basis of many of the extraordinary

accounts we meet with in the study of classical mythology.

And now a few words will be necessary concerning the religious beliefs of

the Romans. When the Greeks first settled in Italy they found in the

country they colonized a mythology belonging to the Celtic inhabitants,

which, according to the Greek custom of paying reverence to all gods, known

or unknown, they readily adopted, selecting and appropriating those

divinities which had the greatest affinity to their own, and thus they

formed a religious belief which naturally bore the impress of its ancient

Greek source. As the primitive Celts, however, were a less civilized people

than the Greeks, their mythology was of a more barbarous character, and

this circumstance, combined with the fact that the Romans were not gifted

with the vivid imagination of their Greek neighbours, leaves its mark on

the Roman mythology, which is far less fertile in fanciful conceits, and

deficient in all those fairy-like stories and wonderfully poetic ideas

which so strongly characterize that of the Greeks.

* * * * *

{11}

ORIGIN OF THE WORLD.--FIRST DYNASTY.

URANUS AND GAEA. (COELUS AND TERRA.)

The ancient Greeks had several different theories with regard to the origin

of the world, but the generally accepted notion was that before this world

came into existence, there was in its place a confused mass of shapeless

elements called Chaos. These elements becoming at length consolidated (by

what means does not appear), resolved themselves into two widely different

substances, the lighter portion of which, soaring on high, formed the sky

or firmament, and constituted itself into a vast, overarching vault, which

protected the firm and solid mass beneath.

Thus came into being the two first great primeval deities of the Greeks,

Uranus and Ge or Gaea.

Uranus, the more refined deity, represented the light and air of heaven,

possessing the distinguishing qualities of light, heat, purity, and

omnipresence, whilst Gaea, the firm, flat,[1] life-sustaining earth, was

worshipped as the great all-nourishing mother. Her many titles refer to her

more or less in this character, and she appears to have been universally

revered among the Greeks, there being scarcely a city in Greece which did

not contain a temple erected in her honour; indeed Gaea was held in such

veneration that her name was always invoked whenever the gods took a solemn

oath, made an emphatic declaration, or implored assistance.

Uranus, the heaven, was believed to have united himself in marriage with

Gaea, the earth; and a moment's reflection will show what a truly poetical,

and also what a logical idea this was; for, taken in a figurative sense,

{12} this union actually does exist. The smiles of heaven produce the

flowers of earth, whereas his long-continued frowns exercise so depressing

an influence upon his loving partner, that she no longer decks herself in

bright and festive robes, but responds with ready sympathy to his

melancholy mood.

The first-born child of Uranus and Gaea was Oceanus,[2] the ocean stream,

that vast expanse of ever-flowing water which encircled the earth. Here we

meet with another logical though fanciful conclusion, which a very slight

knowledge of the workings of nature proves to have been just and true. The

ocean is formed from the rains which descend from heaven and the streams

which flow from earth. By making Oceanus therefore the offspring of Uranus

and Gaea, the ancients, if we take this notion in its literal sense, merely

assert that the ocean is produced by the combined influence of heaven and

earth, whilst at the same time their fervid and poetical imagination led

them to see in this, as in all manifestations of the powers of nature, an

actual, tangible divinity.

But Uranus, the heaven, the embodiment of light, heat, and the breath of

life, produced offspring who were of a much less material nature than his

son Oceanus. These other children of his were supposed to occupy the

intermediate space which divided him from Gaea. Nearest to Uranus, and just

beneath him, came Aether (Ether), a bright creation representing that

highly rarified atmosphere which immortals alone could breathe. Then

followed Aer (Air), which was in close proximity to Gaea, and represented,

as its name implies, the grosser atmosphere surrounding the earth which

mortals could freely breathe, and without which they would perish. Aether

and Aer were separated from each other by divinities called Nephelae. These

were their restless and wandering sisters, who existed in the form of

clouds, ever {13} floating between Aether and Aer. Gaea also produced the

mountains, and Pontus (the sea). She united herself with the latter, and

their offspring were the sea-deities Nereus, Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto, and

Eurybia.

Co-existent with Uranus and Gaea were two mighty powers who were also the

offspring of Chaos. These were Erebus (Darkness) and Nyx (Night), who

formed a striking contrast to the cheerful light of heaven and the bright

smiles of earth. Erebus reigned in that mysterious world below where no ray

of sunshine, no gleam of daylight, nor vestige of health-giving terrestrial

life ever appeared. Nyx, the sister of Erebus, represented Night, and was

worshipped by the ancients with the greatest solemnity.

Uranus was also supposed to have been united to Nyx, but only in his

capacity as god of light, he being considered the source and fountain of

all light, and their children were Eos (Aurora), the Dawn, and Hemera, the

Daylight. Nyx again, on her side was also doubly united, having been

married at some indefinite period to Erebus.

In addition to those children of heaven and earth already enumerated,

Uranus and Gaea produced two distinctly different races of beings called

Giants and Titans. The Giants personified brute strength alone, but the

Titans united to their great physical power intellectual qualifications

variously developed. There were three Giants, Briareus, Cottus, and Gyges,

who each possessed a hundred hands and fifty heads, and were known

collectively by the name of the Hecatoncheires, which signified

hundred-handed. These mighty Giants could shake the universe and produce

earthquakes; it is therefore evident that they represented those active

subterranean forces to which allusion has been made in the opening chapter.

The Titans were twelve in number; their names were: Oceanus, Ceos, Crios,

Hyperion, Iapetus, Cronus, Theia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, and

Tethys.

Now Uranus, the chaste light of heaven, the essence of all that is bright

and pleasing, held in abhorrence his {14} crude, rough, and turbulent

offspring, the Giants, and moreover feared that their great power might

eventually prove hurtful to himself. He therefore hurled them into

Tartarus, that portion of the lower world which served as the subterranean

dungeon of the gods. In order to avenge the oppression of her children, the

Giants, Gaea instigated a conspiracy on the part of the Titans against

Uranus, which was carried to a successful issue by her son Cronus. He

wounded his father, and from the blood of the wound which fell upon the

earth sprang a race of monstrous beings also called Giants. Assisted by his

brother-Titans, Cronus succeeded in dethroning his father, who, enraged at

his defeat, cursed his rebellious son, and foretold to him a similar fate.

Cronus now became invested with supreme power, and assigned to his brothers

offices of distinction, subordinate only to himself. Subsequently, however,

when, secure of his position, he no longer needed their assistance, he

basely repaid their former services with treachery, made war upon his

brothers and faithful allies, and, assisted by the Giants, completely

defeated them, sending such as resisted his all-conquering arm down into

the lowest depths of Tartarus.

* * * * *

SECOND DYNASTY.

CRONUS (SATURN).

Cronus was the god of time in its sense of eternal duration. He married

Rhea, daughter of Uranus and Gaea, a very important divinity, to whom a

special chapter will be devoted hereafter. Their children were, three sons:

Aides (Pluto), Poseidon (Neptune), Zeus (Jupiter), and three daughters:

Hestia (Vesta), Demeter (Ceres), and Hera (Juno). Cronus, having an uneasy

conscience, was afraid that his children might one day rise up against his

authority, and thus verify the prediction of his father {15} Uranus. In

order, therefore, to render the prophecy impossible of fulfilment, Cronus

swallowed each child as soon as it was born,[3] greatly to the sorrow and

indignation of his wife Rhea. When it came to Zeus, the sixth and last,

Rhea resolved to try and save this one child at least, to love and cherish,

and appealed to her parents, Uranus and Gaea, for counsel and assistance. By

their advice she wrapped a stone in baby-clothes, and Cronus, in eager

haste, swallowed it, without noticing the deception. The child thus saved,

eventually, as we shall see, dethroned his father Cronus, became supreme

god in his stead, and was universally venerated as the great national god

of the Greeks.

[Illustration]

Anxious to preserve the secret of his existence from Cronus, Rhea sent the

infant Zeus secretly to Crete, where he was nourished, protected, and

educated. A sacred goat, called Amalthea, supplied the place of his mother,

by providing him with milk; nymphs, called Melissae, fed him with honey,

and eagles and doves brought him nectar and ambrosia.[4] He was kept

concealed in a cave in the heart of Mount Ida, and the Curetes, or priests

of Rhea, by beating their shields together, kept up a constant noise at the

entrance, which drowned the cries of the child and frightened away all

intruders. Under the watchful care of the Nymphs the infant Zeus throve

rapidly, developing great physical powers, combined with {16} extraordinary

wisdom and intelligence. Grown to manhood, he determined to compel his

father to restore his brothers and sisters to the light of day, and is said

to have been assisted in this difficult task by the goddess Metis, who

artfully persuaded Cronus to drink a potion, which caused him to give back

the children he had swallowed. The stone which had counterfeited Zeus was

placed at Delphi, where it was long exhibited as a sacred relic.

Cronus was so enraged at being circumvented that war between the father and

son became inevitable. The rival forces ranged themselves on two separate

high mountains in Thessaly; Zeus, with his brothers and sisters, took his

stand on Mount Olympus, where he was joined by Oceanus, and others of the

Titans, who had forsaken Cronus on account of his oppressions. Cronus and

his brother-Titans took possession of Mount Othrys, and prepared for

battle. The struggle was long and fierce, and at length Zeus, finding that

he was no nearer victory than before, bethought himself of the existence of

the imprisoned Giants, and knowing that they would be able to render him

most powerful assistance, he hastened to liberate them. He also called to

his aid the Cyclops (sons of Poseidon and Amphitrite),[5] who had only one

eye each in the middle of their foreheads, and were called Brontes

(Thunder), Steropes (Lightning), and Pyracmon (Fire-anvil). They promptly

responded to his summons for help, and brought with them tremendous

thunderbolts which the Hecatoncheires, with their hundred hands, hurled

down upon the enemy, at the same time raising mighty earthquakes, which

swallowed up and destroyed all who opposed them. Aided by these new and

powerful allies, Zeus now made a furious onslaught on his enemies, and so

tremendous was the encounter that all nature is said to have throbbed in

accord with this mighty effort of the celestial deities. The sea rose

mountains high, and its angry billows {17} hissed and foamed; the earth

shook to its foundations, the heavens sent forth rolling thunder, and flash

after flash of death-bringing lightning, whilst a blinding mist enveloped

Cronus and his allies.

And now the fortunes of war began to turn, and victory smiled on Zeus.

Cronus and his army were completely overthrown, his brothers despatched to

the gloomy depths of the lower world, and Cronus himself was banished from

his kingdom and deprived for ever of the supreme power, which now became

vested in his son Zeus. This war was called the Titanomachia, and is most

graphically described by the old classic poets.

[Illustration]

With the defeat of Cronus and his banishment from his dominions, his career

as a ruling Greek divinity entirely ceases. But being, like all the gods,

immortal, he was supposed to be still in existence, though possessing no

longer either influence or authority, his place being filled to a certain

extent by his descendant and successor, Zeus.

Cronus is often represented as an old man leaning on a scythe, with an

hour-glass in his hand. The hour-glass symbolizes the fast-fleeting moments

as they succeed each other unceasingly; the scythe is emblematical of time,

which mows down all before it.

SATURN.

The Romans, according to their custom of identifying their deities with

those of the Greek gods whose attributes were similar to their own,

declared Cronus to be identical with their old agricultural divinity

Saturn. They believed that after his defeat in the {18} Titanomachia and

his banishment from his dominions by Zeus, he took refuge with Janus, king

of Italy, who received the exiled deity with great kindness, and even

shared his throne with him. Their united reign became so thoroughly

peaceful and happy, and was distinguished by such uninterrupted prosperity,

that it was called the Golden Age.

Saturn is usually represented bearing a sickle in the one hand and a

wheat-sheaf in the other.

A temple was erected to him at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, in which

were deposited the public treasury and the laws of the state.

RHEA (OPS).

Rhea, the wife of Cronus, and mother of Zeus and the other great gods of

Olympus, personified the earth, and was regarded as the Great Mother and

unceasing producer of all plant-life. She was also believed to exercise

unbounded sway over the animal creation, more especially over the lion, the

noble king of beasts. Rhea is generally represented wearing a crown of

turrets or towers and seated on a throne, with lions crouching at her feet.

She is sometimes depicted sitting in a chariot, drawn by lions.

The principal seat of her worship, which was always of a very riotous

character, was at Crete. At her festivals, which took place at night, the

wildest music of flutes, cymbals, and drums resounded, whilst joyful shouts

and cries, accompanied by dancing and loud stamping of feet, filled the

air.

This divinity was introduced into Crete by its first colonists from

Phrygia, in Asia Minor, in which country she was worshipped under the name

of Cybele. The people of Crete adored her as the Great Mother, more

especially in her signification as the sustainer of the vegetable world.

Seeing, however, that year by year, as winter appears, all her glory

vanishes, her flowers fade, and her trees become leafless, they poetically

expressed this process of nature under the figure of a lost love. She {19}

was said to have been tenderly attached to a youth of remarkable beauty,

named Atys, who, to her grief and indignation, proved faithless to her. He

was about to unite himself to a nymph called Sagaris, when, in the midst of

the wedding feast, the rage of the incensed goddess suddenly burst forth

upon all present. A panic seized the assembled guests, and Atys, becoming

afflicted with temporary madness, fled to the mountains and destroyed

himself. Cybele, moved with sorrow and regret, instituted a yearly mourning

for his loss, when her priests, the Corybantes, with their usual noisy

accompaniments, marched into the mountains to seek the lost youth. Having

discovered him[6] they gave full vent to their ecstatic delight by

indulging in the most violent gesticulations, dancing, shouting, and, at

the same time, wounding and gashing themselves in a frightful manner.

OPS.

In Rome the Greek Rhea was identified with Ops, the goddess of plenty, the

wife of Saturn, who had a variety of appellations. She was called

Magna-Mater, Mater-Deorum, Berecynthia-Idea, and also Dindymene. This

latter title she acquired from three high mountains in Phrygia, whence she

was brought to Rome as Cybele during the second Punic war, B.C. 205, in

obedience to an injunction contained in the Sybilline books. She was

represented as a matron crowned with towers, seated in a chariot drawn by

lions.

* * * * *

DIVISION OF THE WORLD.

We will now return to Zeus and his brothers, who, having gained a complete

victory over their enemies, began to consider how the world, which they had

{20} conquered, should be divided between them. At last it was settled by

lot that Zeus should reign supreme in Heaven, whilst Aides governed the

Lower World, and Poseidon had full command over the Sea, but the supremacy

of Zeus was recognized in all three kingdoms, in heaven, on earth (in which

of course the sea was included), and under the earth. Zeus held his court

on the top of Mount Olympus, whose summit was beyond the clouds; the

dominions of Aides were the gloomy unknown regions below the earth; and

Poseidon reigned over the sea. It will be seen that the realm of each of

these gods was enveloped in mystery. Olympus was shrouded in mists, Hades

was wrapt in gloomy darkness, and the sea was, and indeed still is, a

source of wonder and deep interest. Hence we see that what to other nations

were merely strange phenomena, served this poetical and imaginative people

as a foundation upon which to build the wonderful stories of their

mythology.

The division of the world being now satisfactorily arranged, it would seem

that all things ought to have gone on smoothly, but such was not the case.

Trouble arose in an unlooked-for quarter. The Giants, those hideous

monsters (some with legs formed of serpents) who had sprung from the earth

and the blood of Uranus, declared war against the triumphant deities of

Olympus, and a struggle ensued, which, in consequence of Gaea having made

these children of hers invincible as long as they kept their feet on the

ground, was wearisome and protracted. Their mother's precaution, however,

was rendered unavailing by pieces of rock being hurled upon them, which

threw them down, and their feet being no longer placed firmly on their

mother-earth, they were overcome, and this tedious war (which was called

the Gigantomachia) at last came to an end. Among the most daring of these

earth-born giants were Enceladus, Rhoetus, and the valiant Mimas, who, with

youthful fire and energy, hurled against heaven great masses of rock and

burning oak-trees, and defied the lightnings of Zeus. One of the most

powerful monsters who opposed Zeus in this {21} war was called Typhon or

Typhoeus. He was the youngest son of Tartarus and Gaea, and had a hundred

heads, with eyes which struck terror to the beholders, and awe-inspiring

voices frightful to hear. This dreadful monster resolved to conquer both

gods and men, but his plans were at length defeated by Zeus, who, after a

violent encounter, succeeded in destroying him with a thunderbolt, but not

before he had so terrified the gods that they had fled for refuge to Egypt,

where they metamorphosed themselves into different animals and thus

escaped.

* * * * *

THEORIES AS TO THE ORIGIN OF MAN.

Just as there were several theories concerning the origin of the world, so

there were various accounts of the creation of man.

The first natural belief of the Greek people was that man had sprung from

the earth. They saw the tender plants and flowers force their way through

the ground in the early spring of the year after the frost of winter had

disappeared, and so they naturally concluded that man must also have issued

from the earth in a similar manner. Like the wild plants and flowers, he

was supposed to have had no cultivation, and resembled in his habits the

untamed beasts of the field, having no habitation except that which nature

had provided in the holes of the rocks, and in the dense forests whose

overarching boughs protected him from the inclemency of the weather.

In the course of time these primitive human beings became tamed and

civilized by the gods and heroes, who taught them to work in metals, to

build houses, and other useful arts of civilization. But the human race

became in the course of time so degenerate that the gods resolved to

destroy all mankind by means of a flood; Deucalion {22} (son of Prometheus)

and his wife Pyrrha, being, on account of their piety, the only mortals

saved.

By the command of his father, Deucalion built a ship, in which he and his

wife took refuge during the deluge, which lasted for nine days. When the

waters abated the ship rested on Mount Othrys in Thessaly, or according to

some on Mount Parnassus. Deucalion and his wife now consulted the oracle of

Themis as to how the human race might be restored. The answer was, that

they were to cover their heads, and throw the bones of their mother behind

them. For some time they were perplexed as to the meaning of the oracular

command, but at length both agreed that by the bones of their mother were

meant the stones of the earth. They accordingly took up stones from the

mountain side and cast them over their shoulders. From those thrown by

Deucalion there sprang up men, and from those thrown by Pyrrha, women.

After the lapse of time the theory of Autochthony (from _autos_, self, and

_chthon_, earth) was laid aside. When this belief existed there were no

religious teachers whatever; but in course of time temples were raised in

honour of the different gods, and priests appointed to offer sacrifices to

them and conduct their worship. These priests were looked upon as

authorities in all religious matters, and the doctrine they taught was,

that man had been created by the gods, and that there had been several

successive ages of men, which were called the Golden, Silver, Brazen, and

Iron Ages.

Life in the Golden Age was one unceasing round of ever-recurring pleasures

unmarred by sorrow or care. The favoured mortals living at this happy time

led pure and joyous lives, thinking no evil, and doing no wrong. The earth

brought forth fruits and flowers without toil or labour in plentiful

luxuriance, and war was unknown. This delightful and god-like existence

lasted for hundreds of years, and when at length life on earth was ended,

death laid his hand so gently upon them that they passed painlessly away in

a happy dream, and continued their existence as ministering spirits in

Hades, watching over and {23} protecting those they had loved and left

behind on earth. The men of the Silver Age[7] were a long time growing up,

and during their childhood, which lasted a hundred years, they suffered

from ill-health and extreme debility. When they at last became men they

lived but a short time, for they would not abstain from mutual injury, nor

pay the service due to the gods, and were therefore banished to Hades.

There, unlike the beings of the Golden Age, they exercised no beneficent

supervision over the dear ones left behind, but wandered about as restless

spirits, always sighing for the lost pleasures they had enjoyed in life.

The men of the Brazen Age were quite a different race of beings, being as

strong and powerful as those of the Silver Age were weak and enervated.

Everything which surrounded them was of brass; their arms, their tools,

their dwellings, and all that they made. Their characters seem to have

resembled the metal in which they delighted; their minds and hearts were

hard, obdurate, and cruel. They led a life of strife and contention,

introduced into the world, which had hitherto known nothing but peace and

tranquillity, the scourge of war, and were in fact only happy when fighting

and quarrelling with each other. Hitherto Themis, the goddess of Justice,

had been living among mankind, but becoming disheartened at their evil

doings, she abandoned the earth, and winged her flight back to heaven. At

last the gods became so tired of their evil deeds and continual

dissensions, that they removed them from the face of the earth, and sent

them down to Hades to share the fate of their predecessors.

We now come to the men of the Iron Age. The earth, no longer teeming with

fruitfulness, only yielded her increase after much toil and labour. The

goddess of Justice having abandoned mankind, no influence remained

sufficiently powerful to preserve them from every kind of wickedness and

sin. This condition grew worse as time went on, until at last Zeus in his

anger let loose the water-courses from above, and drowned every {24}

individual of this evil race, except Deucalion and Pyrrha.

The theory of Hesiod,[8] the oldest of all the Greek poets, was that the

Titan Prometheus, the son of Iapetus, had formed man out of clay, and that

Athene had breathed a soul into him. Full of love for the beings he had

called into existence, Prometheus determined to elevate their minds and

improve their condition in every way; he therefore taught them astronomy,

mathematics, the alphabet, how to cure diseases, and the art of divination.

He created this race in such great numbers that the gods began to see the

necessity of instituting certain fixed laws with regard to the sacrifices

due to them, and the worship to which they considered themselves entitled

from mankind in return for the protection which they accorded them. An

assembly was therefore convened at Mecone in order to settle these points.

It was decided that Prometheus, as the advocate of man, should slay an ox,

which should be divided into two equal parts, and that the gods should

select one portion which should henceforth, in all future sacrifices, be

set apart for them. Prometheus so divided the ox that one part consisted of

the bones (which formed of course the least valuable portion of the

animal), artfully concealed by the white fat; whilst the other contained

all the edible parts, which he covered with the skin, and on the top of all

he laid the stomach.

Zeus, pretending to be deceived, chose the heap of bones, but he saw

through the stratagem, and was so angry at the deception practised on him

by Prometheus that he avenged himself by refusing to mortals the gift of

fire. {25} Prometheus, however, resolved to brave the anger of the great

ruler of Olympus, and to obtain from heaven the vital spark so necessary

for the further progress and comfort of the human race. He accordingly

contrived to steal some sparks from the chariot of the sun, which he

conveyed to earth hidden in a hollow tube. Furious at being again

outwitted, Zeus determined to be revenged first on mankind, and then on

Prometheus. To punish the former he commanded Hephaestus (Vulcan) to mould a

beautiful woman out of clay, and determined that through her

instrumentality trouble and misery should be brought into the world.

The gods were so charmed with the graceful and artistic creation of

Hephaestus, that they all determined to endow her with some special gift.

Hermes (Mercury) bestowed on her a smooth persuasive tongue, Aphrodite gave

her beauty and the art of pleasing; the Graces made her fascinating, and

Athene (Minerva) gifted her with the possession of feminine

accomplishments. She was called Pandora, which means all-gifted, having

received every attribute necessary to make her charming and irresistible.

Thus beautifully formed and endowed, this exquisite creature, attired by

the Graces, and crowned with flowers by the Seasons, was conducted to the

house of Epimetheus[9] by Hermes the messenger of the gods. Now Epimetheus

had been warned by his brother not to accept any gift whatever from the

gods; but he was so fascinated by the beautiful being who suddenly appeared

before him, that he welcomed her to his home, and made her his wife. It was

not long, however, before he had cause to regret his weakness.

He had in his possession a jar of rare workmanship, containing all the

blessings reserved by the gods for mankind, which he had been expressly

forbidden to open. But woman's proverbial curiosity could not withstand so

great a temptation, and Pandora determined to solve the mystery at any

cost. Watching her opportunity she raised the lid, and immediately all the

blessings which {26} the gods had thus reserved for mankind took wing and

flew away. But all was not lost. Just as Hope (which lay at the bottom) was

about to escape, Pandora hastily closed the lid of the jar, and thus

preserved to man that never-failing solace which helps him to bear with

courage the many ills which assail him.[10]

Having punished mankind, Zeus determined to execute vengeance on

Prometheus. He accordingly chained him to a rock in Mount Caucasus, and

sent an eagle every day to gnaw away his liver, which grew again every

night ready for fresh torments. For thirty years Prometheus endured this

fearful punishment; but at length Zeus relented, and permitted his son

Heracles (Hercules) to kill the eagle, and the sufferer was released.

* * * * *

THIRD DYNASTY--OLYMPIAN DIVINITIES.

ZEUS[11] (JUPITER).

Zeus, the great presiding deity of the universe, the ruler of heaven and

earth, was regarded by the Greeks, first, as the god of all aerial

phenomena; secondly, as the personification of the laws of nature; thirdly,

as lord of state-life; and fourthly, as the father of gods and men.

As the god of aerial phenomena he could, by shaking his aegis,[12] produce

storms, tempests, and intense darkness. At his command the mighty thunder

rolls, the lightning flashes, and the clouds open and pour forth their

refreshing streams to fructify the earth.

As the personification of the operations of nature, he represents those

grand laws of unchanging and harmonious order, by which not only the

physical but also {27} the moral world is governed. Hence he is the god of

regulated time as marked by the changing seasons, and by the regular

succession of day and night, in contradistinction to his father Cronus, who

represents time absolutely, _i.e._ eternity.

As the lord of state-life, he is the founder of kingly power, the upholder

of all institutions connected with the state, and the special friend and

patron of princes, whom he guards and assists with his advice and counsel.

He protects the assembly of the people, and, in fact, watches over the

welfare of the whole community.

As the father of the gods, Zeus sees that each deity performs his or her

individual duty, punishes their misdeeds, settles their disputes, and acts

towards them on all occasions as their all-knowing counsellor and mighty

friend.

As the father of men, he takes a paternal interest in the actions and

well-being of mortals. He watches over them with tender solicitude,

rewarding truth, charity, and uprightness, but severely punishing perjury,

cruelty, and want of hospitality. Even the poorest and most forlorn

wanderer finds in him a powerful advocate, for he, by a wise and merciful

dispensation, ordains that the mighty ones of the earth should succour

their distressed and needy brethren.

The Greeks believed that the home of this their mighty and all-powerful

deity was on the top of Mount Olympus, that high and lofty mountain between

Thessaly and Macedon, whose summit, wrapt in clouds and mist, was hidden

from mortal view. It was supposed that this mysterious region, which even a

bird could not reach, extended beyond the clouds right into Aether, the

realm of the immortal gods. The poets describe this ethereal atmosphere as

bright, glistening, and refreshing, exercising a peculiar, gladdening

influence over the minds and hearts of those privileged beings permitted to

share its delights. Here youth never ages, and the passing years leave no

traces on its favoured inhabitants. On the cloud-capped summit of Olympus

was the palace of {28} Zeus and Hera, of burnished gold, chased silver, and

gleaming ivory. Lower down were the homes of the other gods, which, though

less commanding in position and size, were yet similar to that of Zeus in

design and workmanship, all being the work of the divine artist Hephaestus.

Below these were other palaces of silver, ebony, ivory, or burnished brass,

where the Heroes, or Demi-gods, resided.

As the worship of Zeus formed so important a feature in the religion of the

Greeks, his statues were necessarily both numerous and magnificent. He is

usually represented as a man of noble and imposing mien, his countenance

expressing all the lofty majesty of the omnipotent ruler of the universe,

combined with the gracious, yet serious, benignity of the father and friend

of mankind. He may be recognized by his rich flowing beard, and the thick

masses of hair, which rise straight from the high and intellectual forehead

and fall to his shoulders in clustering locks. The nose is large and finely

formed, and the slightly-opened lips impart an air of sympathetic

kindliness which invites confidence. He is always accompanied by an eagle,

which either surmounts his sceptre, or sits at his feet; he generally bears

in his uplifted hand a sheaf of thunder-bolts, just ready to be hurled,

whilst in the other he holds the lightning. The head is frequently

encircled with a wreath of oak-leaves.

[Illustration]

The most celebrated statue of the Olympian Zeus was that by the famous

Athenian sculptor Phidias, which was forty feet high, and stood in the

temple of Zeus at Olympia. It was formed of ivory and gold, and was {29}

such a masterpiece of art, that it was reckoned among the seven wonders of

the world. It represented the god, seated on a throne, holding in his right

hand a life-sized image of Nike (the goddess of Victory), and in his left a

royal sceptre, surmounted by an eagle. It is said that the great sculptor

had concentrated all the marvellous powers of his genius on this sublime

conception, and earnestly entreated Zeus to give him a decided proof that

his labours were approved. An answer to his prayer came through the open

roof of the temple in the shape of a flash of lightning, which Phidias

interpreted as a sign that the god of heaven was pleased with his work.

Zeus was first worshipped at Dodona in Epirus, where, at the foot of Mount

Tomarus, on the woody shore of Lake Joanina, was his famous oracle, the

most ancient in Greece. Here the voice of the eternal and invisible god was

supposed to be heard in the rustling leaves of a giant oak, announcing to

mankind the will of heaven and the destiny of mortals; these revelations

being interpreted to the people by the priests of Zeus, who were called

Selli. Recent excavations which have been made at this spot have brought to

light the ruins of the ancient temple of Zeus, and also, among other

interesting relics, some plates of lead, on which are engraved inquiries

which were evidently made by certain individuals who consulted the oracle.

These little leaden plates speak to us, as it were, in a curiously homely

manner of a by-gone time in the buried past. One person inquires what god

he should apply to for health and fortune; another asks for advice

concerning his child; and a third, evidently a shepherd, promises a gift to

the oracle should a speculation in sheep turn out successfully. Had these

little memorials been of gold instead of lead, they would doubtless have

shared the fate of the numerous treasures which adorned this and other

temples, in the universal pillage which took place when Greece fell into

the hands of barbarians.

Though Dodona was the most ancient of his shrines, the great national seat

of the worship of Zeus was at Olympia in Elis, where there was a

magnificent temple {30} dedicated to him, containing the famous colossal

statue by Phidias above described. Crowds of devout worshippers flocked to

this world-renowned fane from all parts of Greece, not only to pay homage

to their supreme deity, but also to join in the celebrated games which were

held there at intervals of four years. The Olympic games were such a

thoroughly national institution, that even Greeks who had left their native

country made a point of returning on these occasions, if possible, in order

to contend with their fellow-countrymen in the various athletic sports

which took place at these festivals.

It will be seen on reflection that in a country like Greece, which

contained so many petty states, often at variance with each other, these

national gatherings must have been most valuable as a means of uniting the

Greeks in one great bond of brotherhood. On these festive occasions the

whole nation met together, forgetting for the moment all past differences,

and uniting in the enjoyment of the same festivities.

It will doubtless have been remarked that in the representations of Zeus he

is always accompanied by an eagle. This royal bird was sacred to him,

probably from the fact of its being the only creature capable of gazing at

the sun without being dazzled, which may have suggested the idea that it

was able to contemplate the splendour of divine majesty unshrinkingly.

The oak-tree, and also the summits of mountains, were sacred to Zeus. His

sacrifices consisted of white bulls, cows, and goats.

Zeus had seven immortal wives, whose names were Metis, Themis, Eurynome,

Demeter, Mnemosyne, Leto, and Hera.

METIS, his first wife, was one of the Oceanides or sea-nymphs. She was the

personification of prudence and wisdom, a convincing proof of which she

displayed in her successful administration of the potion which caused

Cronus to yield up his children. She was endowed with the gift of prophecy,

and foretold to Zeus that one of their children would gain ascendency over

{31} him. In order, therefore, to avert the possibility of the prediction

being fulfilled he swallowed her before any children were born to them.

Feeling afterwards violent pains in his head, he sent for Hephaestus, and

ordered him to open it with an axe. His command was obeyed, and out sprang,

with a loud and martial shout, a beautiful being, clad in armour from head

to foot. This was Athene (Minerva), goddess of Armed Resistance and Wisdom.

THEMIS was the goddess of Justice, Law, and Order.

EURYNOME was one of the Oceanides, and the mother of the Charites or

Graces.

DEMETER,[13] the daughter of Cronus and Rhea, was the goddess of

Agriculture.

MNEMOSYNE, the daughter of Uranus and Gaea, was the goddess of Memory and

the mother of the nine Muses.

LETO (Latona) was the daughter of Coeus and Phoebe. She was gifted with

wonderful beauty, and was tenderly loved by Zeus, but her lot was far from

being a happy one, for Hera, being extremely jealous of her, persecuted her

with inveterate cruelty, and sent the dreadful serpent Python[14] to

terrify and torment her wherever she went. But Zeus, who had observed with

the deepest compassion her weary wanderings and agonized fears, resolved to

create for her some place of refuge, however humble, where she might feel

herself safe from the venomous attacks of the serpent. He therefore brought

her to Delos, a floating island in the AEgean Sea, which he made stationary

by attaching it with chains of adamant to the bottom of the sea. Here she

gave birth to her twin-children, Apollo and Artemis (Diana), two of the

most beautiful of the immortals.

According to some versions of the story of Leto, Zeus transformed her into

a quail, in order that she might thus elude the vigilance of Hera, and she

is said to have {32} resumed her true form when she arrived at the island

of Delos.

HERA, being the principal wife of Zeus and queen of heaven, a detailed

account will be given of her in a special chapter.

In the union of Zeus with most of his immortal wives we shall find that an

allegorical meaning is conveyed. His marriage with Metis, who is said to

have surpassed both gods and men in knowledge, represents supreme power

allied to wisdom and prudence. His union with Themis typifies the bond

which exists between divine majesty and justice, law, and order. Eurynome,

as the mother of the Charites or Graces, supplied the refining and

harmonizing influences of grace and beauty, whilst the marriage of Zeus

with Mnemosyne typifies the union of genius with memory.

* * * * *

In addition to the seven immortal wives of Zeus, he was also allied to a

number of mortal maidens whom he visited under various disguises, as it was

supposed that if he revealed himself in his true form as king of heaven the

splendour of his glory would cause instant destruction to mortals. The

mortal consorts of Zeus have been such a favourite theme with poets,

painters, and sculptors, that it is necessary to give some account of their

individual history. Those best known are Antiope, Leda, Europa, Callisto,

Alcmene, Semele, Io, and Danae.

ANTIOPE, to whom Zeus appeared under the form of a satyr, was the daughter

of Nicteus, king of Thebes. To escape the anger of her father she fled to

Sicyon, where king Epopeus, enraptured with her wonderful beauty, made her

his wife without asking her father's consent. This so enraged Nicteus that

he declared war against Epopeus, in order to compel him to restore Antiope.

At his death, which took place before he could succeed in his purpose,

Nicteus left his kingdom to his brother Lycus, commanding him, at the same

time, to carry on the war, and execute his vengeance. Lycus invaded Sicyon,

defeated and killed Epopeus, and brought back {33} Antiope as a prisoner.

On the way to Thebes she gave birth to her twin-sons, Amphion and Zethus,

who, by the orders of Lycus, were at once exposed on Mount Cithaeron, and

would have perished but for the kindness of a shepherd, who took pity on

them and preserved their lives. Antiope was, for many years, held captive

by her uncle Lycus, and compelled to suffer the utmost cruelty at the hands

of his wife Dirce. But one day her bonds were miraculously loosened, and

she flew for shelter and protection to the humble dwelling of her sons on

Mount Cithaeron. During the long period of their mother's captivity the

babes had grown into sturdy youths, and, as they listened angrily to the

story of her wrongs, they became all impatience to avenge them. Setting off

at once to Thebes they succeeded in possessing themselves of the town, and

after slaying the cruel Lycus they bound Dirce by the hair to the horns of

a wild bull, which dragged her hither and thither until she expired. Her

mangled body was cast into the fount near Thebes, which still bears her

name. Amphion became king of Thebes in his uncle's stead. He was a friend

of the Muses, and devoted to music and poetry. His brother, Zethus, was

famous for his skill in archery, and was passionately fond of the chase. It

is said that when Amphion wished to inclose the town of Thebes with walls

and towers, he had but to play a sweet melody on the lyre, given to him by

Hermes, and the huge stones began to move, and obediently fitted themselves

together.

The punishment of Dirce at the hands of Amphion and Zethus forms the

subject of the world-renowned marble group in the museum at Naples, known

by the name of the Farnese Bull.

In sculpture Amphion is always represented with a lyre; Zethus with a club.

LEDA, whose affections Zeus won under the form of a swan, was the daughter

of Thestius, king of AEtolia. Her twin-sons, Castor and (Polydeuces or)

Pollux,[15] were {34} renowned for their tender attachment to each other.

They were also famous for their physical accomplishments, Castor being the

most expert charioteer of his day, and Pollux the first of pugilists. Their

names appear both among the hunters of the Calydonian boar-hunt and the

heroes of the Argonautic expedition. The brothers became attached to the

daughters of Leucippus, prince of the Messenians, who had been betrothed by

their father to Idas and Lynceus, sons of Aphareus. Having persuaded

Leucippus to break his promise, the twins carried off the maidens as their

brides. Idas and Lynceus, naturally furious at this proceeding, challenged

the Dioscuri to mortal combat, in which Castor perished by the hand of

Idas, and Lynceus by that of Pollux. Zeus wished to confer the gift of

immortality upon Pollux, but he refused to accept it unless allowed to

share it with Castor. Zeus gave the desired permission, and the faithful

brothers were both allowed to live, but only on alternate days. The

Dioscuri received divine honours throughout Greece, and were worshipped

with special reverence at Sparta.

EUROPA was the beautiful daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia. She was one

day gathering flowers with her companions in a meadow near the sea-shore,

when Zeus, charmed with her great beauty, and wishing to win her love,

transformed himself into a beautiful white bull, and trotted quietly up to

the princess, so as not to alarm her. Surprised at the gentleness of the

animal, and admiring its beauty, as it lay placidly on the grass, she

caressed it, crowned it with flowers, and, at last, playfully seated

herself on its back. Hardly had she done so than the disguised god bounded

away with his lovely burden, and swam across the sea with her to the island

of Crete.

Europa was the mother of Minos, Aeacus, and Rhadamanthus. Minos, who became

king of Crete, was celebrated for his justice and moderation, and after

death he was created one of the judges of the lower world, which office he

held in conjunction with his brothers. {35}

CALLISTO, the daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia, was a huntress in the

train of Artemis, devoted to the pleasures of the chase, who had made a vow

never to marry; but Zeus, under the form of the huntress-goddess, succeeded

in obtaining her affections. Hera, being extremely jealous of her, changed

her into a bear, and caused Artemis (who failed to recognize her attendant

under this form) to hunt her in the chase, and put an end to her existence.

After her death she was placed by Zeus among the stars as a constellation,

under the name of Arctos, or the bear.

ALCMENE, the daughter of Electryon, king of Mycenae, was betrothed to her

cousin Amphytrion; but, during his absence on a perilous undertaking, Zeus

assumed his form, and obtained her affections. Heracles (whose

world-renowned exploits will be related among the legends) was the son of

Alcmene and Zeus.

SEMELE, a beautiful princess, the daughter of Cadmus, king of Phoenicia,

was greatly beloved by Zeus. Like the unfortunate Callisto, she was hated

by Hera with jealous malignity, and the haughty queen of heaven determined

to effect her destruction. Disguising herself, therefore, as Beroe,

Semele's faithful old nurse, she artfully persuaded her to insist upon Zeus

visiting her, as he appeared to Hera, in all his power and glory, well

knowing that this would cause her instant death. Semele, suspecting no

treachery, followed the advice of her supposed nurse; and the next time

Zeus came to her, she earnestly entreated him to grant the favour she was

about to ask. Zeus swore by the Styx (which was to the gods an irrevocable

oath) to accede to her request whatsoever it might be. Semele, therefore,

secure of gaining her petition, begged of Zeus to appear to her in all the

glory of his divine power and majesty. As he had sworn to grant whatever

she asked of him, he was compelled to comply with her wish; he therefore

revealed himself as the mighty lord of the universe, accompanied by thunder

and lightning, and she was instantly consumed in the flames. {36}

IO, daughter of Inachus, king of Argos, was a priestess of Hera. She was

very beautiful, and Zeus, who was much attached to her, transformed her

into a white cow, in order to defeat the jealous intrigues of Hera, who,

however, was not to be deceived. Aware of the stratagem, she contrived to

obtain the animal from Zeus, and placed her under the watchful care of a

man called Argus-Panoptes, who fastened her to an olive-tree in the grove

of Hera. He had a hundred eyes, of which, when asleep, he never closed more

than two at a time; being thus always on the watch, Hera found him

extremely useful in keeping guard over Io. Hermes, however, by the command

of Zeus, succeeded in putting all his eyes to sleep with the sound of his

magic lyre, and then, taking advantage of his helpless condition, slew him.

The story goes, that in commemoration of the services which Argus had

rendered her, Hera placed his eyes on the tail of a peacock, as a lasting

memorial of her gratitude. Ever fertile in resource, Hera now sent a gadfly

to worry and torment the unfortunate Io incessantly, and she wandered all

over the world in hopes of escaping from her tormentor. At length she

reached Egypt, where she found rest and freedom from the persecutions of

her enemy. On the banks of the Nile she resumed her original form and gave

birth to a son called Epaphus, who afterwards became king of Egypt, and

built the famous city of Memphis.

DANAE.--Zeus appeared to Danae under the form of a shower of gold. (Further

details concerning her will be found in the legend of Perseus.)

* * * * *

The Greeks supposed that the divine ruler of the Universe occasionally

assumed a human form, and descended from his celestial abode, in order to

visit mankind and observe their proceedings, his aim being generally either

to punish the guilty, or to reward the deserving.

On one occasion Zeus, accompanied by Hermes, made a journey through

Phrygia, seeking hospitality and shelter wherever they went. But nowhere

did they receive a {37} kindly welcome till they came to the humble cottage

of an old man and his wife called Philemon and Baucis, who entertained them

with the greatest kindness, setting before them what frugal fare their

humble means permitted, and bidding them welcome with unaffected

cordiality. Observing in the course of their simple repast that the wine

bowl was miraculously replenished, the aged couple became convinced of the

divine nature of their guests. The gods now informed them that on account

of its wickedness their native place was doomed to destruction, and told

them to climb the neighbouring hill with them, which overlooked the village

where they dwelt. What was their dismay on beholding at their feet, in

place of the spot where they had passed so many happy years together,

nothing but a watery plain, the only house to be seen being their own

little cottage, which suddenly changed itself into a temple before their

eyes. Zeus now asked the worthy pair to name any wish they particularly

desired and it should be granted. They accordingly begged that they might

serve the gods in the temple below, and end life together.

Their wish was granted, for, after spending the remainder of their lives in

the worship of the gods, they both died at the same instant, and were

transformed by Zeus into trees, remaining for ever side by side.

Upon another occasion Zeus, wishing to ascertain for himself the truth of

the reports concerning the atrocious wickedness of mankind, made a journey

through Arcadia. Being recognized by the Arcadians as king of heaven, he

was received by them with becoming respect and veneration; but Lycaon,

their king, who had rendered himself infamous by the gross impiety of

himself and his sons, doubted the divinity of Zeus, ridiculed his people

for being so easily duped, and, according to his custom of killing all

strangers who ventured to trust his hospitality, resolved to murder him.

Before executing this wicked design, however, he decided to put Zeus to the

test, and having killed a boy for the purpose, placed before him a dish

containing human flesh. But Zeus was {38} not to be deceived. He beheld the

revolting dish with horror and loathing, and angrily upsetting the table

upon which it was placed, turned Lycaon into a wolf, and destroyed all his

fifty sons by lightning, except Nyctimus, who was saved by the intervention

of Gaea.

JUPITER.

The Roman Jupiter, who is so frequently confounded with the Greek Zeus, is

identical with him only as being the head of the Olympic gods, and the

presiding deity over Life, Light, and Aerial Phenomena. Jupiter is lord of

life in its widest and most comprehensive signification, having absolute

power over life and death, in which respect he differed from the Greek

Zeus, who was to a certain extent controlled by the all-potent sway of the

Moirae or Fates. Zeus, as we have seen, often condescends to visit mankind,

either as a mortal, or under various disguises, whereas Jupiter always

remains essentially the supreme god of heaven, and never appears upon

earth.

The most celebrated temple of Jupiter was that on the Capitoline Hill in

the city of Rome, where he was worshipped under the names of

Jupiter-Optimus-Maximus, Capitolinus, and Tarpeius.

The Romans represented him seated on a throne of ivory, holding in his

right hand a sheaf of thunderbolts, and in his left a sceptre, whilst an

eagle stands beside his throne.

HERA (JUNO).

Hera, the eldest daughter of Cronus and Rhea, was born at Samos, or,

according to some accounts, at Argos, and was reared by the sea-divinities

Oceanus and Tethys, who were models of conjugal fidelity.[16] She was the

{39} principal wife of Zeus, and, as queen of heaven, participated in the

honours paid to him, but her dominion only extended over the air (the lower

aerial regions). Hera appears to be the sublime embodiment of strict

matronly virtue, and is on that account the protectress of purity and

married women. Faultless herself in her fidelity as a wife, she is

essentially the type of the sanctity of the marriage tie, and holds in

abhorrence any violation of its obligations. So strongly was she imbued

with this hatred of any immorality, that, finding herself so often called

upon to punish the failings of both gods and men in this respect, she

became jealous, harsh, and vindictive. Her exalted position as the wife of

the supreme deity, combined with her extreme beauty, caused her to become

exceedingly vain, and she consequently resented with great severity any

infringement on her rights as queen of heaven, or any apparent slight on

her personal appearance.

The following story will signally illustrate how ready she was to resent

any slight offered to her.

At the marriage of the sea-nymph Thetis with a mortal called Peleus, all

the gods and goddesses were present, except Eris (the goddess of Discord).

Indignant at not being invited, she determined to cause dissension in the

assembly, and for this purpose threw into the midst of the guests a golden

apple with the inscription on it "For the Fairest." Now, as all the

goddesses were extremely beautiful, each claimed the apple; but at length,

the rest having relinquished their pretensions, the number of candidates

was reduced to three, Hera, Athene, and Aphrodite, who agreed to appeal to

Paris for a settlement of this delicate question, he being noted for the

wisdom he had displayed in his judgment upon several occasions. Paris was

the son of Priam, king of Troy, who, ignorant of his noble birth, was at

this time feeding his flocks on Mount Ida, in Phrygia. Hermes, as messenger

of the gods, conducted the three rival beauties to the young shepherd, and

with breathless anxiety they awaited his decision. Each fair candidate

endeavoured {40} to secure his favour by the most tempting offers. Hera

promised him extensive dominions; Athene, martial fame and glory; and

Aphrodite, the loveliest woman in the world. But whether he really

considered Aphrodite the fairest of the three, or preferred a beautiful

wife to fame and power, we cannot tell; all we know is that to her he

awarded the golden apple, and she became ever after universally

acknowledged as the goddess of beauty. Hera, having fully expected that

Paris would give her the preference, was so indignant that she never

forgave him, and not only persecuted him, but all the family of Priam,

whose dreadful sufferings and misfortunes during the Trojan war were

attributed to her influence. In fact, she carried her animosity to such an

extent that it was often the cause of domestic disagreements between

herself and Zeus, who espoused the cause of the Trojans.

Among the many stories of these frequent quarrels there is one connected

with Heracles, the favourite son of Zeus, which is as follows:--Hera having

raised a storm at sea in order to drive him out of his course, Zeus became

so angry that he hung her in the clouds by a golden chain, and attached

heavy anvils to her feet. Her son Hephaestus tried to release his mother

from her humiliating position, for which Zeus threw him out of heaven, and

his leg was broken by the fall.

Hera, being deeply offended with Zeus, determined to separate herself from

him for ever, and she accordingly left him and took up her abode in Euboea.

Surprised and grieved at this unlooked-for desertion, Zeus resolved to

leave no means untried to win her back again. In this emergency he

consulted Cithaeron, king of Platea, who was famed for his great wisdom and

subtlety. Cithaeron advised him to dress up an image in bridal attire and

place it in a chariot, announcing that this was Platea, his future wife.

The artifice succeeded. Hera, incensed at the idea of a rival, flew to meet

the procession in great anger, and seizing the supposed bride, she

furiously attacked her and dragged off her nuptial attire. Her delight on

discovering the deception was so great that a {41} reconciliation took

place, and, committing the image to the flames, with joyful laughter she

seated herself in its place and returned to Olympus.

Hera was the mother of Ares (Mars), Hephaestus, Hebe, and Eileithyia. Ares

was the god of War; Hephaestus, of Fire; Hebe, of Youth; and Eileithyia

presided over the birth of mortals.

Hera dearly loved Greece, and indeed always watched over and protected

Greek interests, her beloved and favourite cities being Argos, Samos,

Sparta, and Mycenae.

[Illustration]

Her principal temples were at Argos and Samos. From a remote period she was

greatly venerated at Olympia, and her temple there, which stood in the

Altis or sacred grove, was five hundred years older than that of Zeus on

the same spot. Some interesting excavations which are now going on there

have brought to light the remains of the ancient edifice, which contains

among other treasures of antiquity several beautiful statues, the work of

the famous sculptors of ancient Greece. At first this temple was built of

wood, then of stone, and the one lately discovered was formed of

conglomerate of shells.

In the Altis races were run by young maidens in honour of Hera, and the

fleetest of foot received in token of her victory an olive-wreath and a

piece of the flesh of the sacrifices. These races, like the Olympic Games,

were celebrated at intervals of four years, and were called Herae. A

beautiful robe, woven by sixteen women chosen from the sixteen cities of

Elis, was always offered to Hera on these {42} occasions, and choral songs

and sacred dances formed part of the ceremonies.

Hera is usually represented seated on a throne, holding a pomegranate in

one hand and a sceptre surmounted by a cuckoo in the other. She appears as

a calm, dignified matron of majestic beauty, robed in a tunic and mantle,

her forehead is broad and intellectual, her eyes large and fully opened,

and her arms dazzlingly white and finely moulded.

The finest statue of this divinity was that by Polycletus at Argos.

Her attributes are the diadem, veil, sceptre, and peacock.

The first day of every month a ewe-lamb and sow were sacrificed to Hera.

The hawk, goose, and more particularly the peacock[17] were sacred to her.

Flocks of these beautiful birds generally surround her throne and draw her

chariot, Iris, the Rainbow, being seated behind her.

Her favourite flowers were the dittany, poppy, and lily.

JUNO.

Juno, the Roman divinity supposed to be identical with the Greek Hera,

differed from her in the most salient points, for whereas Hera invariably

appears as the haughty, unbending queen of heaven, Juno, on the other hand,

is revered and beloved as the type of a matron and housewife. She was

worshipped in Rome under various titles, most of which point to her

vocation as the protectress of married women. Juno was believed to watch

over and guard the life of every woman from her birth to her death. The

principal temples dedicated to her were in Rome, one being erected on the

Aventine, and the other on the Capitoline Hill. She had also a temple on

the Arx, in which she was worshipped as Juno Moneta, or the {43} warning

goddess. Adjacent to this shrine was the public mint.[18] On the 1st of

March a grand annual festival, called the Matronalia, was celebrated in her

honour by all the married women of Rome, and this religious institution was

accompanied with much solemnity.[19]

PALLAS-ATHENE (MINERVA).

Pallas-Athene, goddess of Wisdom and Armed Resistance, was a purely Greek

divinity; that is to say, no other nation possessed a corresponding

conception. She was supposed, as already related, to have issued from the

head of Zeus himself, clad in armour from head to foot. The miraculous

advent of this maiden goddess is beautifully described by Homer in one of

his hymns: snow-capped Olympus shook to its foundation; the glad earth

re-echoed her martial shout; the billowy sea became agitated; and Helios,

the sun-god, arrested his fiery steeds in their headlong course to welcome

this wonderful emanation from the godhead. Athene was at once admitted into

the assembly of the gods, and henceforth took her place as the most

faithful and sagacious of all her father's counsellors. This brave,

dauntless maiden, so exactly the essence of all that is noble in the

character of "the father of gods and men," remained throughout chaste in

word and deed, and kind at heart, without exhibiting any of those failings

which somewhat mar the nobler features in the character of Zeus. This

direct emanation from his own self, justly his favourite child, his better

and purer counterpart, received from him several important prerogatives.

She was permitted to hurl the thunderbolts, to prolong the life of man, and

to bestow the gift of prophecy; in fact Athene was the only divinity whose

authority was equal to that of Zeus himself, and when he had ceased to

visit the earth in person {44} she was empowered by him to act as his

deputy. It was her especial duty to protect the state and all peaceful

associations of mankind, which she possessed the power of defending when

occasion required. She encouraged the maintenance of law and order, and

defended the right on all occasions, for which reason, in the Trojan war

she espouses the cause of the Greeks and exerts all her influence on their

behalf. The Areopagus, a court of justice where religious causes and

murders were tried, was believed to have been instituted by her, and when

both sides happened to have an equal number of votes she gave the

casting-vote in favour of the accused. She was the patroness of learning,

science, and art, more particularly where these contributed directly

towards the welfare of nations. She presided over all inventions connected

with agriculture, invented the plough, and taught mankind how to use oxen

for farming purposes. She also instructed mankind in the use of numbers,

trumpets, chariots, &c., and presided over the building of the Argo,[20]

thereby encouraging the useful art of navigation. She also taught the

Greeks how to build the wooden horse by means of which the destruction of

Troy was effected.

The safety of cities depended on her care, for which reason her temples

were generally built on the citadels, and she was supposed to watch over

the defence of the walls, fortifications, harbours, &c. A divinity who so

faithfully guarded the best interests of the state, by not only protecting

it from the attacks of enemies, but also by developing its chief resources

of wealth and prosperity, was worthily chosen as the presiding deity of the

state, and in this character as an essentially political goddess she was

called Athene-Polias.

The fact of Athene having been born clad in armour, which merely signified

that her virtue and purity were unassailable, has given rise to the

erroneous supposition that she was the presiding goddess of war; but a

deeper {45} study of her character in all its bearings proves that, in

contradistinction to her brother Ares, the god of war, who loved strife for

its own sake, she only takes up arms to protect the innocent and deserving

against tyrannical oppression. It is true that in the Iliad we frequently

see her on the battlefield fighting valiantly, and protecting her favourite

heroes; but this is always at the command of Zeus, who even supplies her

with arms for the purpose, as it is supposed that she possessed none of her

own. A marked feature in the representations of this deity is the aegis,

that wonderful shield given to her by her father as a further means of

defence, which, when in danger, she swung so swiftly round and round that

it kept at a distance all antagonistic influences; hence her name Pallas,

from _pallo_, I swing. In the centre of this shield, which was covered with

dragon's scales, bordered with serpents, and which she sometimes wore as a

breastplate, was the awe-inspiring head of the Medusa, which had the effect

of turning to stone all beholders.

In addition to the many functions which she exercised in connection with

the state, Athene presided over the two chief departments of feminine

industry, spinning and weaving. In the latter art she herself displayed

unrivalled ability and exquisite taste. She wove her own robe and that of

Hera, which last she is said to have embroidered very richly; she also gave

Jason a cloak wrought by herself, when he set forth in quest of the Golden

Fleece. Being on one occasion challenged to a contest in this

accomplishment by a mortal maiden named Arachne, whom she had instructed in

the art of weaving, she accepted the challenge and was completely

vanquished by her pupil. Angry at her defeat, she struck the unfortunate

maiden on the forehead with the shuttle which she held in her hand; and

Arachne, being of a sensitive nature, was so hurt by this indignity that

she hung herself in despair, and was changed by Athene into a spider. This

goddess is said to have invented the flute,[21] upon {46} which she played

with considerable talent, until one day, being laughed at by the assembled

gods and goddesses for the contortions which her countenance assumed during

these musical efforts, she hastily ran to a fountain in order to convince

herself whether she deserved their ridicule. Finding to her intense disgust

that such was indeed the fact, she threw the flute away, and never raised

it to her lips again.

[Illustration]

Athene is usually represented fully draped; she has a serious and

thoughtful aspect, as though replete with earnestness and wisdom; the

beautiful oval contour of her countenance is adorned by the luxuriance of

her wealth of hair, which is drawn back from the temples and hangs down in

careless grace; she looks the embodiment of strength, grandeur, and

majesty; whilst her broad shoulders and small hips give her a slightly

masculine appearance.

When represented as the war-goddess she appears clad in armour, with a

helmet on her head, from which waves a large plume; she carries the aegis on

her arm, and in her hand a golden staff, which possessed the property of

endowing her chosen favourites with youth and dignity.

Athene was universally worshipped throughout Greece, but was regarded with

special veneration by the Athenians, she being the guardian deity of

Athens. Her most celebrated temple was the Parthenon, which stood on the

{47} Acropolis at Athens, and contained her world-renowned statue by

Phidias, which ranks second only to that of Zeus by the same great artist.

This colossal statue was 39 feet high, and was composed of ivory and gold;

its majestic beauty formed the chief attraction of the temple. It

represented her standing erect, bearing her spear and shield; in her hand

she held an image of Nike, and at her feet there lay a serpent.

The tree sacred to her was the olive, which she herself produced in a

contest with Poseidon. The olive-tree thus called into existence was

preserved in the temple of Erectheus, on the Acropolis, and is said to have

possessed such marvellous vitality, that when the Persians burned it after

sacking the town it immediately burst forth into new shoots.

The principal festival held in honour of this divinity was the Panathenaea.

The owl, cock, and serpent were the animals sacred to her, and her

sacrifices were rams, bulls, and cows.

[Illustration]

MINERVA.

The Minerva of the Romans was identified with the Pallas-Athene of the

Greeks. Like her she presides over learning and all useful arts, and is the

patroness of the feminine accomplishments of sewing, spinning, weaving, &c.

Schools were under her especial care, and schoolboys, therefore, had

holidays during her festivals (the Greater Quinquatria), when they always

brought a gift to their master, called the Minerval.

It is worthy of notice that the only three divinities {48} worshipped in

the Capitol were Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, and in their joint honour the

Ludi Maximi or great games were held.

THEMIS.

Themis, who has already been alluded to as the wife of Zeus, was the

daughter of Cronus and Rhea, and personified those divine laws of justice

and order by means of which the well-being and morality of communities are

regulated. She presided over the assemblies of the people and the laws of

hospitality. To her was intrusted the office of convoking the assembly of

the gods, and she was also mistress of ritual and ceremony. On account of

her great wisdom Zeus himself frequently sought her counsel and acted upon

her advice. Themis was a prophetic divinity, and had an oracle near the

river Cephissus in Boeotia.

She is usually represented as being in the full maturity of womanhood, of

fair aspect, and wearing a flowing garment, which drapes her noble,

majestic form; in her right hand she holds the sword of justice, and in her

left the scales, which indicate the impartiality with which every cause is

carefully weighed by her, her eyes being bandaged so that the personality

of the individual should carry no weight with respect to the verdict.

This divinity is sometimes identified with Tyche, sometimes with Ananke.

Themis, like so many other Greek divinities, takes the place of a more

ancient deity of the same name who was a daughter of Uranus and Gaea. This

elder Themis inherited from her mother the gift of prophecy, and when she

became merged into her younger representative she transmitted to her this

prophetic power.

HESTIA (Vesta).

Hestia was the daughter of Cronus and Rhea. She was the goddess of Fire in

its first application to the wants of mankind, hence she was essentially

the presiding deity {49} of the domestic hearth and the guardian spirit of

man, and it was her pure and benign influence which was supposed to protect

the sanctity of domestic life.

Now in these early ages the hearth was regarded as the most important and

most sacred portion of the dwelling, probably because the protection of the

fire was an important consideration, for if once permitted to become

extinct, re-ignition was attended with extreme difficulty. In fact, the

hearth was held so sacred that it constituted the sanctum of the family,

for which reason it was always erected in the centre of every house. It was

a few feet in height and was built of stone; the fire was placed on the top

of it, and served the double purpose of preparing the daily meals, and

consuming the family sacrifices. Round this domestic hearth or altar were

gathered the various members of the family, the head of the house occupying

the place of honour nearest the hearth. Here prayers were said and

sacrifices offered, and here also every kind and loving feeling was

fostered, which even extended to the hunted and guilty stranger, who, if he

once succeeded in touching this sacred altar, was safe from pursuit and

punishment, and was henceforth placed under the protection of the family.

Any crime committed within the sacred precincts of the domestic hearth was

invariably visited by death.

[Illustration]

In Grecian cities there was a common hall, called the Prytaneum, in which

the members of the government had their meals at the expense of the state,

and here too was the Hestia, or public hearth, with its fire, by means of

which those meals were prepared. It was customary for emigrants to take

with them a portion of this sacred fire, which they jealously guarded and

brought with them to their new home, where it served as a connecting link

between the young Greek colony and the mother country. Hestia is generally

represented standing, and in accordance with the dignity and sanctity of

her character, always appears fully draped. Her countenance is

distinguished by a serene gravity of expression. {50}

VESTA.

Vesta occupies a distinguished place among the earlier divinities of the

Romans. Her temple in Rome, containing as it were the hearthstone of the

nation, stood close beside the palace of Numa Pompilius.

On her altar burned the never-ceasing fire, which was tended by her

priestesses, the Vestal Virgins.[22]

The temple of Vesta was circular in form, and contained that sacred and

highly prized treasure the Palladium of Troy.[23]

The great festival in honour of Vesta, called the Vestalia, was celebrated

on the 9th of June.

DEMETER (Ceres).

Demeter (from _Ge-meter_, earth-mother) was the daughter of Cronus and

Rhea.[24] She represented that portion of Gaea (the whole solid earth) which

we call the earth's crust, and which produces all vegetation. As goddess of

agriculture, field-fruits, plenty, and productiveness, she was the

sustainer of material life, and was therefore a divinity of great

importance. When ancient Gaea lost, with Uranus, her position as a ruling

divinity, she abdicated her sway in favour of her daughter Rhea, who

henceforth inherited the powers which her mother had previously possessed,

receiving in her place the honour and worship of mankind. In a very old

poem Gaea is accordingly described as retiring to a cavern in the bowels

{51} of the earth, where she sits in the lap of her daughter, slumbering,

moaning, and nodding for ever and ever.

It is necessary to keep clearly in view the distinctive difference between

the three great earth-goddesses Gaea, Rhea, and Demeter. Gaea represents the

earth as a whole, with its mighty subterranean forces; Rhea is that

productive power which causes vegetation to spring forth, thus sustaining

men and animals; Demeter, by presiding over agriculture, directs and

utilizes Rhea's productive powers. But in later times, when Rhea, like

other ancient divinities, loses her importance as a ruling deity, Demeter

assumes all her functions and attributes, and then becomes the goddess of

the life-producing and life-maintaining earth-crust. We must bear in mind

the fact that man in his primitive state knew neither how to sow nor how to

till the ground; when, therefore, he had exhausted the pastures which

surrounded him he was compelled to seek others which were as yet unreaped;

thus, roaming constantly from one place to another, settled habitations,

and consequently civilizing influences, were impossible. Demeter, however,

by introducing a knowledge of agriculture, put an end, at once and for

ever, to that nomadic life which was now no longer necessary.

[Illustration]

The favour of Demeter was believed to bring mankind rich harvests and

fruitful crops, whereas her displeasure caused blight, drought, and famine.

The island of Sicily was supposed to be under her especial protection, and

there she was regarded with particular veneration, the Sicilians naturally

attributing the wonderful fertility of their country to the partiality of

the goddess.

Demeter is usually represented as a woman of noble {52} bearing and

majestic appearance, tall, matronly, and dignified, with beautiful golden

hair, which falls in rippling curls over her stately shoulders, the yellow

locks being emblematical of the ripened ears of corn. Sometimes she appears

seated in a chariot drawn by winged dragons, at others she stands erect,

her figure drawn up to its full height, and always fully draped; she bears

a sheaf of wheat-ears in one hand and a lighted torch in the other. The

wheat-ears are not unfrequently replaced by a bunch of poppies, with which

her brows are also garlanded, though sometimes she merely wears a simple

riband in her hair.

Demeter, as the wife of Zeus, became the mother of Persephone (Proserpine),

to whom she was so tenderly attached that her whole life was bound up in

her, and she knew no happiness except in her society. One day, however,

whilst Persephone was gathering flowers in a meadow, attended by the

ocean-nymphs, she saw to her surprise a beautiful narcissus, from the stem

of which sprang forth a hundred blossoms. Drawing near to examine this

lovely flower, whose exquisite scent perfumed the air, she stooped down to

gather it, suspecting no evil, when a yawning abyss opened at her feet, and

Aides, the grim ruler of the lower world, appeared from its depths, seated

in his dazzling chariot drawn by four black horses. Regardless of her tears

and the shrieks of her female attendants, Aides seized the terrified

maiden, and bore her away to the gloomy realms over which he reigned in

melancholy grandeur. Helios, the all-seeing sun-god, and Hecate, a

mysterious and very ancient divinity, alone heard her cries for aid, but

were powerless to help her. When Demeter became conscious of her loss her

grief was intense, and she refused to be comforted. She knew not where to

seek for her child, but feeling that repose and inaction were impossible,

she set out on her weary search, taking with her two torches which she

lighted in the flames of Mount Etna to guide her on her way. For nine long

days and nights she wandered on, inquiring of every one she met for tidings

of her child. {53} But all was in vain! Neither gods nor men could give her

the comfort which her soul so hungered for. At last, on the tenth day, the

disconsolate mother met Hecate, who informed her that she had heard her

daughter's cries, but knew not who it was that had borne her away. By

Hecate's advice Demeter consulted Helios, whose all-seeing eye nothing

escapes, and from him she learnt that it was Zeus himself who had permitted

Aides to seize Persephone, and transport her to the lower world in order

that she might become his wife. Indignant with Zeus for having given his

sanction to the abduction of his daughter, and filled with the bitterest

sorrow, she abandoned her home in Olympus, and refused all heavenly food.

Disguising herself as an old woman, she descended upon earth, and commenced

a weary pilgrimage among mankind. One evening she arrived at a place called

Eleusis, in Attica, and sat down to rest herself near a well beneath the

shade of an olive-tree. The youthful daughters of Celeus, the king of the

country, came with their pails of brass to draw water from this well, and

seeing that the tired wayfarer appeared faint and dispirited, they spoke

kindly to her, asking who she was, and whence she came. Demeter replied

that she had made her escape from pirates, who had captured her, and added

that she would feel grateful for a home with any worthy family, whom she

would be willing to serve in a menial capacity. The princesses, on hearing

this, begged Demeter to have a moment's patience while they returned home

and consulted their mother, Metaneira. They soon brought the joyful

intelligence that she was desirous of securing her services as nurse to her

infant son Demophoon, or Triptolemus. When Demeter arrived at the house a

radiant light suddenly illumined her, which circumstance so overawed

Metaneira that she treated the unknown stranger with the greatest respect,

and hospitably offered her food and drink. But Demeter, still grief-worn

and dejected, refused her friendly offers, and held herself apart from the

social board. At length, however, the maid-servant Iambe succeeded, by

means {54} of playful jests and merriment, in somewhat dispelling the grief

of the sorrowing mother, causing her at times to smile in spite of herself,

and even inducing her to partake of a mixture of barley-meal, mint, and

water, which was prepared according to the directions of the goddess

herself. Time passed on, and the young child throve amazingly under the

care of his kind and judicious nurse, who, however, gave him no food, but

anointed him daily with ambrosia, and every night laid him secretly in the

fire in order to render him immortal and exempt from old age. But,

unfortunately, this benevolent design on the part of Demeter was frustrated

by Metaneira herself, whose curiosity, one night, impelled her to watch the

proceedings of the mysterious being who nursed her child. When to her

horror she beheld her son placed in the flames, she shrieked aloud.

Demeter, incensed at this untimely interruption, instantly withdrew the

child, and throwing him on the ground, revealed herself in her true

character. The bent and aged form had vanished, and in its place there

stood a bright and beauteous being, whose golden locks streamed over her

shoulders in richest luxuriance, her whole aspect bespeaking dignity and

majesty. She told the awe-struck Metaneira that she was the goddess

Demeter, and had intended to make her son immortal, but that her fatal

curiosity had rendered this impossible, adding, however, that the child,

having slept in her arms, and been nursed on her lap, should ever command

the respect and esteem of mankind. She then desired that a temple and altar

should be erected to her on a neighbouring hill by the people of Eleusis,

promising that she herself would direct them how to perform the sacred

rites and ceremonies, which should be observed in her honour. With these

words she took her departure never to return.

Obedient to her commands, Celeus called together a meeting of his people,

and built the temple on the spot which the goddess had indicated. It was

soon completed, and Demeter took up her abode in it, but her heart was

still sad for the loss of her daughter, and the whole world felt the

influence of her grief and dejection. This was {55} indeed a terrible year

for mankind. Demeter no longer smiled on the earth she was wont to bless,

and though the husbandman sowed the grain, and the groaning oxen ploughed

the fields, no harvest rewarded their labour. All was barren, dreary

desolation. The world was threatened with famine, and the gods with the

loss of their accustomed honours and sacrifices; it became evident,

therefore, to Zeus himself that some measures must be adopted to appease

the anger of the goddess. He accordingly despatched Iris and many of the

other gods and goddesses to implore Demeter to return to Olympus; but all

their prayers were fruitless. The incensed goddess swore that until her

daughter was restored to her she would not allow the grain to spring forth

from the earth. At length Zeus sent Hermes, his faithful messenger, to the

lower world with a petition to Aides, urgently entreating him to restore

Persephone to the arms of her disconsolate mother. When he arrived in the

gloomy realms of Aides, Hermes found him seated on a throne with the

beautiful Persephone beside him, sorrowfully bewailing her unhappy fate. On

learning his errand, Aides consented to resign Persephone, who joyfully

prepared to follow the messenger of the gods to the abode of life and

light. Before taking leave of her husband, he presented to her a few seeds

of pomegranate, which in her excitement she thoughtlessly swallowed, and

this simple act, as the sequel will show, materially affected her whole

future life. The meeting between mother and child was one of unmixed

rapture, and for the moment all the past was forgotten. The loving mother's

happiness would now have been complete had not Aides asserted his rights.

These were, that if any immortal had tasted food in his realms they were

bound to remain there for ever. Of course the ruler of the lower world had

to prove this assertion. This, however, he found no difficulty in doing, as

Ascalaphus, the son of Acheron and Orphne, was his witness to the fact.[25]

Zeus, pitying the disappointment of Demeter at finding {56} her hopes thus

blighted, succeeded in effecting a compromise by inducing his brother Aides

to allow Persephone to spend six months of the year with the gods above,

whilst during the other six she was to be the joyless companion of her grim

lord below. Accompanied by her daughter, the beautiful Persephone, Demeter

now resumed her long-abandoned dwelling in Olympus; the sympathetic earth

responded gaily to her bright smiles, the corn at once sprang forth from

the ground in fullest plenty, the trees, which late were sered and bare,

now donned their brightest emerald robes, and the flowers, so long

imprisoned in the hard, dry soil, filled the whole air with their fragrant

perfume. Thus ends this charming story, which was a favourite theme with

all the classic authors.

It is very possible that the poets who first created this graceful myth

merely intended it as an allegory to illustrate the change of seasons; in

the course of time, however, a literal meaning became attached to this and

similar poetical fancies, and thus the people of Greece came to regard as

an article of religious belief what, in the first instance, was nothing

more than a poetic simile.

In the temple erected to Demeter at Eleusis, the famous Eleusinian

Mysteries were instituted by the goddess herself. It is exceedingly

difficult, as in the case of all secret societies, to discover anything

with certainty concerning these sacred rites. The most plausible

supposition is that the doctrines taught by the priests to the favoured few

whom they initiated, were religious truths which were deemed unfit for the

uninstructed mind of the multitude. For instance, it is supposed that the

myth of Demeter and Persephone was explained by the teachers of the

Mysteries to signify the temporary loss which mother earth sustains every

year when the icy breath of winter robs her of her flowers and fruits and

grain.

It is believed that in later times a still deeper meaning was conveyed by

this beautiful myth, viz., the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. The

grain, which, as it were, remains dead for a time in the dark earth, only

{57} to rise one day dressed in a newer and lovelier garb, was supposed to

symbolize the soul, which, after death, frees itself from corruption, to

live again under a better and purer form.

When Demeter instituted the Eleusinian Mysteries, Celeus and his family

were the first to be initiated, Celeus himself being appointed high-priest.

His son Triptolemus and his daughters, who acted as priestesses, assisted

him in the duties of his sacred office. The Mysteries were celebrated by

the Athenians every five years, and were, for a long time, their exclusive

privilege. They took place by torchlight, and were conducted with the

greatest solemnity.

In order to spread abroad the blessings which agriculture confers, Demeter

presented Triptolemus with her chariot drawn by winged dragons, and, giving

him some grains of corn, desired him to journey through the world, teaching

mankind the arts of agriculture and husbandry.

[Illustration]

Demeter exercised great severity towards those who incurred her

displeasure. We find examples of this in the stories of Stellio and

Eresicthon. Stellio was a youth who ridiculed the goddess for the eagerness

with which she was eating a bowl of porridge, when weary and faint in the

vain search for her daughter. Resolved that he should never again have an

opportunity of thus offending, she angrily threw into his face the

remainder of the food, and changed him into a spotted lizard.

Eresicthon, son of Triopas, had drawn upon himself the anger of Demeter by

cutting down her sacred groves, for which she punished him with a constant

and insatiable hunger. He sold all his possessions in order to satisfy his

cravings, and was forced at last to devour his own limbs. His daughter

Metra, who was devotedly attached to him, possessed the power of

transforming herself into a variety of different animals. By this means she

contrived to support her father, who sold her again and again each time she

assumed a different form, and thus he dragged on a pitiful existence. {58}

CERES.

The Roman Ceres is actually the Greek Demeter under another name, her

attributes, worship, festivals, &c., being precisely identical.

The Romans were indebted to Sicily for this divinity, her worship having

been introduced by the Greek colonists who settled there.

The Cerealia, or festivals in honour of Ceres, commenced on the 12th of

April, and lasted several days.

APHRODITE (VENUS).

Aphrodite (from _aphros_, sea-foam, and _dite_, issued), the daughter of

Zeus and a sea-nymph called Dione, was the goddess of Love and Beauty.

Dione, being a sea-nymph, gave birth to her daughter beneath the waves; but

the child of the heaven-inhabiting Zeus was forced to ascend from the

ocean-depths and mount to the snow-capped summits of Olympus, in order to

breathe that ethereal and most refined atmosphere which pertains to the

celestial gods.

Aphrodite was the mother of Eros (Cupid), the god of Love, also of AEneas,

the great Trojan hero and the head of that Greek colony which settled in

Italy, and from which arose the city of Rome. As a mother Aphrodite claims

our sympathy for the tenderness she exhibits towards her children. Homer

tells us in his Iliad, how, when AEneas was wounded in battle, she came to

his assistance, regardless of personal danger, and was herself severely

wounded in attempting to save his life. {59}

Aphrodite was tenderly attached to a lovely youth, called Adonis, whose

exquisite beauty has become proverbial. He was a motherless babe, and

Aphrodite, taking pity on him, placed him in a chest and intrusted him to

the care of Persephone, who became so fond of the beautiful youth that she

refused to part with him. Zeus, being appealed to by the rival

foster-mothers, decided that Adonis should spend four months of every year

with Persephone, four with Aphrodite, whilst during the remaining four

months he should be left to his own devices. He became, however, so

attached to Aphrodite that he voluntarily devoted to her the time at his

own disposal. Adonis was killed, during the chase, by a wild boar, to the

great grief of Aphrodite, who bemoaned his loss so persistently that Aides,

moved with pity, permitted him to pass six months of every year with her,

whilst the remaining half of the year was spent by him in the lower world.

Aphrodite possessed a magic girdle (the famous _cestus_) which she

frequently lent to unhappy maidens suffering from the pangs of unrequited

love, as it was endowed with the power of inspiring affection for the

wearer, whom it invested with every attribute of grace, beauty, and

fascination.

Her usual attendants are the Charites or Graces (Euphrosyne, Aglaia, and

Thalia), who are represented undraped and intertwined in a loving embrace.

In Hesiod's _Theogony_ she is supposed to belong to the more ancient

divinities, and, whilst those of later date are represented as having

descended one from another, and all more or less from Zeus, Aphrodite has a

variously-accounted-for, yet independent origin.

The most poetical version of her birth is that when Uranus was wounded by

his son Cronus, his blood mingled with the foam of the sea, whereupon the

bubbling waters at once assumed a rosy tint, and from their depths arose,

in all the surpassing glory of her loveliness, Aphrodite, goddess of love

and beauty! Shaking her long, fair tresses, the water-drops rolled down

into the beautiful {60} sea-shell in which she stood, and became

transformed into pure glistening pearls. Wafted by the soft and balmy

breezes, she floated on to Cythera, and was thence transported to the

island of Cyprus. Lightly she stepped on shore, and under the gentle

pressure of her delicate foot the dry and rigid sand became transformed

into a verdant meadow, where every varied shade of colour and every sweet

odour charmed the senses. The whole island of Cyprus became clothed with

verdure, and greeted this fairest of all created beings with a glad smile

of friendly welcome. Here she was received by the Seasons, who decked her

with garments of immortal fabric, encircling her fair brow with a wreath of

purest gold, whilst from her ears depended costly rings, and a glittering

chain embraced her swan-like throat. And now, arrayed in all the panoply of

her irresistible charms, the nymphs escort her to the dazzling halls of

Olympus, where she is received with ecstatic enthusiasm by the admiring

gods and goddesses. The gods all vied with each other in aspiring to the

honour of her hand, but Hephaestus became the envied possessor of this

lovely being, who, however, proved as faithless as she was beautiful, and

caused her husband much unhappiness, owing to the preference she showed at

various times for some of the other gods and also for mortal men.

[Illustration]

The celebrated Venus of Milo, now in the Louvre, is an exquisite statue of

this divinity. The head is beautifully formed; the rich waves of hair

descend on her rather low but broad forehead and are caught up gracefully

in a small knot at the back of the head; the expression of the face is most

bewitching, and bespeaks the perfect {61} joyousness of a happy nature

combined with the dignity of a goddess; the drapery falls in careless folds

from the waist downwards, and her whole attitude is the embodiment of all

that is graceful and lovely in womanhood. She is of medium height, and the

form is perfect in its symmetry and faultless proportions.

Aphrodite is also frequently represented in the act of confining her

dripping locks in a knot, whilst her attendant nymphs envelop her in a

gauzy veil.

The animals sacred to her were the dove, swan, swallow, and sparrow. Her

favourite plants were the myrtle, apple-tree, rose, and poppy.

The worship of Aphrodite is supposed to have been introduced into Greece

from Central Asia. There is no doubt that she was originally identical with

the famous Astarte, the Ashtoreth of the Bible, against whose idolatrous

worship and infamous rites the prophets of old hurled forth their sublime

and powerful anathemas.

VENUS.

The Venus of the Romans was identified with the Aphrodite of the Greeks.

The worship of this divinity was only established in Rome in comparatively

later times. Annual festivals, called Veneralia, were held in her honour,

and the month of April, when flowers and plants spring forth afresh, was

sacred to her. She was worshipped as Venus Cloacina (or the Purifier), and

as Venus Myrtea (or the myrtle goddess), an epithet derived from the

myrtle, the emblem of Love.

HELIOS (SOL).

The worship of Helios was introduced into Greece from Asia. According to

the earliest conceptions of the Greeks he was not only the sun-god, but

also the personification of life and all life-giving power, for light is

well known to be an indispensable condition of all healthy terrestrial

life. The worship of the sun was originally very widely spread, {62} not

only among the early Greeks themselves, but also among other primitive

nations. To us the sun is simply the orb of light, which, high above our

heads, performs each day the functions assigned to it by a mighty and

invisible Power; we can, therefore, form but a faint idea of the impression

which it produced upon the spirit of a people whose intellect was still in

its infancy, and who believed, with child-like simplicity, that every power

of nature was a divinity, which, according as its character was baleful or

beneficent, worked for the destruction or benefit of the human race.

Helios, who was the son of the Titans Hyperion and Theia, is described as

rising every morning in the east, preceded by his sister Eos (the Dawn),

who, with her rosy fingers, paints the tips of the mountains, and draws

aside that misty veil through which her brother is about to appear. When he

has burst forth in all the glorious light of day, Eos disappears, and

Helios now drives his flame-darting chariot along the accustomed track.

This chariot, which is of burnished gold, is drawn by four fire-breathing

steeds, behind which the young god stands erect with flashing eyes, his

head surrounded with rays, holding in one hand the reins of those fiery

coursers which in all hands save his are unmanageable. When towards evening

he descends the curve[26] in order to cool his burning forehead in the

waters of the deep sea, he is followed closely by his sister Selene (the

Moon), who is now prepared to take charge of the world, and illumine with

her silver crescent the dusky night. Helios meanwhile rests from his

labours, and, reclining softly on the cool fragrant couch prepared for him

by the sea-nymphs, recruits himself for another life-giving, joy-inspiring,

and beauteous day.

It may appear strange that, although the Greeks considered the earth to be

a flat circle, no explanation is given of the fact that Helios sinks down

in the far {63} west regularly every evening, and yet reappears as

regularly every morning in the east. Whether he was supposed to pass

through Tartarus, and thus regain the opposite extremity through the bowels

of the earth, or whether they thought he possessed any other means of

making this transit, there is not a line in either Homer or Hesiod to

prove. In later times, however, the poets invented the graceful fiction,

that when Helios had finished his course, and reached the western side of

the curve, a winged-boat, or cup, which had been made for him by Hephaestus,

awaited him there, and conveyed him rapidly, with his glorious equipage, to

the east, where he recommenced his bright and glowing career.

This divinity was invoked as a witness when a solemn oath was taken, as it

was believed that nothing escaped his all-seeing eye, and it was this fact

which enabled him to inform Demeter of the fate of her daughter, as already

related. He was supposed to possess flocks and herds in various localities,

which may possibly be intended to represent the days and nights of the

year, or the stars of heaven.

Helios is said to have loved Clytie, a daughter of Oceanus, who ardently

returned his affection; but in the course of time the fickle sun-god

transferred his devotion to Leucothea, the daughter of Orchamus, king of

the eastern countries, which so angered the forsaken Clytie that she

informed Orchamus of his daughter's attachment, and he punished her by

inhumanly burying her alive. Helios, overcome with grief, endeavoured, by

every means in his power, to recall her to life. At last, finding all his

efforts unavailing, he sprinkled her grave with heavenly nectar, and

immediately there sprang forth from the spot a shoot of frankincense, which

spread around its aromatic perfume.

The jealous Clytie gained nothing by her cruel conduct, for the sun-god

came to her no more. Inconsolable at his loss, she threw herself upon the

ground, and refused all sustenance. For nine long days she turned her face

towards the glorious god of day, as he moved along the {64} heavens, till

at length her limbs became rooted in the ground, and she was transformed

into a flower, which ever turns towards the sun.

Helios married Perse, daughter of Oceanus, and their children were, Aetes,

king of Colchis (celebrated in the legend of the Argonauts as the possessor

of the Golden Fleece), and Circe, the renowned sorceress.

Helios had another son named Phaethon, whose mother was Clymene, one of the

Oceanides. The youth was very beautiful, and a great favourite with

Aphrodite, who intrusted him with the care of one of her temples, which

flattering proof of her regard caused him to become vain and presumptuous.

His friend Epaphus, son of Zeus and Io, endeavoured to check his youthful

vanity by pretending to disbelieve his assertion that the sun-god was his

father. Phaethon, full of resentment, and eager to be able to refute the

calumny, hastened to his mother Clymene, and besought her to tell him

whether Helios was really his father. Moved by his entreaties, and at the

same time angry at the reproach of Epaphus, Clymene pointed to the glorious

sun, then shining down upon them, and assured her son that in that bright

orb he beheld the author of his being, adding that if he had still any

doubt, he might visit the radiant dwelling of the great god of light and

inquire for himself. Overjoyed at his mother's reassuring words, and

following the directions she gave him, Phaethon quickly wended his way to

his father's palace.

As he entered the palace of the sun-god the dazzling rays almost blinded

him, and prevented him from approaching the throne on which his father was

seated, surrounded by the Hours, Days, Months, Years, and Seasons. Helios,

who with his all-seeing eye had watched him from afar, removed his crown of

glittering rays, and bade him not to be afraid, but to draw near to his

father. Encouraged by this kind reception, Phaethon entreated him to bestow

upon him such a proof of his love, that all the world might be convinced

that he was indeed his son; whereupon Helios desired him to ask any favour

he pleased, {65} and swore by the Styx that it should be granted. The

impetuous youth immediately requested permission to drive the chariot of

the sun for one whole day. His father listened horror-struck to this

presumptuous demand, and by representing the many dangers which would beset

his path, endeavoured to dissuade him from so perilous an undertaking; but

his son, deaf to all advice, pressed his point with such pertinacity, that

Helios was reluctantly compelled to lead him to the chariot. Phaethon

paused for a moment to admire the beauty of the glittering equipage, the

gift of the god of fire, who had formed it of gold, and ornamented it with

precious stones, which reflected the rays of the sun. And now Helios,

seeing his sister, the Dawn, opening her doors in the rosy east, ordered

the Hours to yoke the horses. The goddesses speedily obeyed the command,

and the father then anointed the face of his son with a sacred balm, to

enable him to endure the burning flames which issued from the nostrils of

the steeds, and sorrowfully placing his crown of rays upon his head,

desired him to ascend the chariot.

The eager youth joyfully took his place and grasped the coveted reins, but

no sooner did the fiery coursers of the sun feel the inexperienced hand

which attempted to guide them, than they became restive and unmanageable.

Wildly they rushed out of their accustomed track, now soaring so high as to

threaten the heavens with destruction, now descending so low as nearly to

set the earth on fire. At last the unfortunate charioteer, blinded with the

glare, and terrified at the awful devastation he had caused, dropped the

reins from his trembling hands. Mountains and forests were in flames,

rivers and streams were dried up, and a general conflagration was imminent.

The scorched earth now called on Zeus for help, who hurled his thunderbolt

at Phaethon, and with a flash of lightning brought the fiery steeds to a

standstill. The lifeless body of the youth fell headlong into the river

Eridanus,[27] where it was received and buried by the {66} nymphs of the

stream. His sisters mourned so long for him that they were transformed by

Zeus into poplars, and the tears they shed, falling into the waters, became

drops of clear, transparent amber. Cycnus, the faithful friend of the

unhappy Phaethon, felt such overwhelming grief at his terrible fate, that

he pined and wasted away. The gods, moved with compassion, transformed him

into a swan, which for ever brooded over the fatal spot where the waters

had closed over the head of his unfortunate friend.

[Illustration]

The chief seat of the worship of Helios was the island of Rhodes, which

according to the following myth was his especial territory. At the time of

the Titanomachia, when the gods were dividing the world by lot, Helios

happened to be absent, and consequently received no share. He, therefore,

complained to Zeus, who proposed to have a new allotment, but this Helios

would not allow, saying, that as he pursued his daily journey, his

penetrating eye had beheld a lovely, fertile island lying beneath the waves

of the ocean, and that if the immortals would swear to give him the

undisturbed possession of this spot, he would be content to accept it as

his share of the universe. The gods took the oath, whereupon the island of

Rhodes immediately raised itself above the surface of the waters.

The famous Colossus of Rhodes, which was one of the seven wonders of the

world, was erected in honour of Helios. This wonderful statue was 105 feet

high, and was formed entirely of brass; it formed the entrance to the

harbour at Rhodes, and the largest vessel could easily sail between the

legs, which stood on moles, each side of the harbour. Though so gigantic,

it was perfectly proportioned in every part. Some idea of {67} its size may

be gained from the fact that very few people were able to span the thumb of

this statue with their arms. In the interior of the Colossus was a winding

staircase leading to the top, from the summit of which, by means of a

telescope, the coast of Syria, and also the shores of Egypt, are said to

have been visible.[28]

EOS (AURORA).

Eos, the Dawn, like her brother Helios, whose advent she always announced,

was also deified by the early Greeks. She too had her own chariot, which

she drove across the vast horizon both morning and night, before and after

the sun-god. Hence she is not merely the personification of the rosy morn,

but also of twilight, for which reason her palace is placed in the west, on

the island AEaea. The abode of Eos is a magnificent structure, surrounded by

flowery meads and velvety lawns, where nymphs and other immortal beings,

wind in and out in the mazy figures of the dance, whilst the music of a

sweetly-tuned melody accompanies their graceful, gliding movements.

Eos is described by the poets as a beautiful maiden with rosy arms and

fingers, and large wings, whose plumage is of an ever-changing hue; she

bears a star on her forehead, and a torch in her hand. Wrapping round her

the rich folds of her violet-tinged mantle, she leaves her couch before the

break of day, and herself yokes her two horses, Lampetus and Phaethon, to

her glorious chariot. She then hastens with active cheerfulness to open the

gates of heaven, in order to herald the approach of her brother, the god of

day, whilst the tender plants and flowers, revived by the morning dew, lift

their heads to welcome her as she passes.

{68}

Eos first married the Titan Astraeus,[29] and their children were Heosphorus

(Hesperus), the evening star, and the winds. She afterwards became united

to Tithonus, son of Laomedon, king of Troy, who had won her affection by

his unrivalled beauty; and Eos, unhappy at the thought of their being ever

separated by death, obtained for him from Zeus the gift of immortality,

forgetting, however, to add to it that of eternal youth. The consequence

was that when, in the course of time, Tithonus grew old and decrepid, and

lost all the beauty which had won her admiration, Eos became disgusted with

his infirmities, and at last shut him up in a chamber, where soon little

else was left of him but his voice, which had now sunk into a weak, feeble

quaver. According to some of the later poets, he became so weary of his

cheerless and miserable existence, that he entreated to be allowed to die.

This was, however, impossible; but Eos, pitying his unhappy condition,

exerted her divine power, and changed him into a grasshopper, which is, as

it were, all voice, and whose monotonous, ceaseless chirpings may not

inaptly be compared to the meaningless babble of extreme old age.

PHOEBUS-APOLLO.

Phoebus-Apollo, the god of Light, Prophecy, Music, Poetry, and the Arts and

Sciences, is by far the noblest conception within the whole range of Greek

mythology, and his worship, which not only extended to all the states of

Greece, but also to Asia Minor and to every Greek colony throughout the

world, stands out among the most ancient and strongly-marked features of

Grecian history, and exerted a more decided influence over the Greek

nation, than that of any other deity, not excepting Zeus himself.

Apollo was the son of Zeus and Leto, and was born beneath the shade of a

palm tree which grew at the foot {69} of Mount Cynthus, on the barren and

rocky island of Delos. The poets tell us that the earth smiled when the

young god first beheld the light of day, and that Delos became so proud and

exultant at the honour thus conferred upon her, that she covered herself

with golden flowers; swans surrounded the island, and the Delian nymphs

celebrated his birth with songs of joy.

[Illustration]

The unhappy Leto, driven to Delos by the relentless persecutions of Hera,

was not long permitted to enjoy her haven of refuge. Being still tormented

by her enemy, the young mother was once more obliged to fly; she therefore

resigned the charge of her new-born babe to the goddess Themis, who

carefully wrapped the helpless infant in swaddling-clothes, and fed him

with nectar and ambrosia; but he had no sooner partaken of the heavenly

food than, to the amazement of the goddess, he burst asunder the bands

which confined his infant limbs, and springing to his feet, appeared before

her as a full-grown youth of divine strength and beauty. He now demanded a

lyre and a bow, declaring that henceforth he would announce to mankind the

will of his father Zeus. "The golden lyre," said he, "shall be my friend,

the bent bow my delight, and in oracles will I foretell the dark future."

With these words he ascended to Olympus, where he was received with joyful

acclamations into the assembly of the celestial gods, who acknowledged him

as the most beautiful and glorious of all the sons of Zeus.

Phoebus-Apollo was the god of light in a twofold {70} signification: first,

as representing the great orb of day which illumines the world; and

secondly, as the heavenly light which animates the soul of man. He

inherited his function as sun-god from Helios, with whom, in later times,

he was so completely identified, that the personality of the one became

gradually merged in that of the other. We, accordingly, find Helios

frequently confounded with Apollo, myths belonging to the former attributed

to the latter; and with some tribes--the Ionic, for instance--so complete

is this identification, that Apollo is called by them Helios-Apollo.

As the divinity whose power is developed in the broad light of day, he

brings joy and delight to nature, and health and prosperity to man. By the

influence of his warm and gentle rays he disperses the noxious vapours of

the night, assists the grain to ripen and the flowers to bloom.

But although, as god of the sun, he is a life-giving and life-preserving

power, who, by his genial influence, dispels the cold of winter, he is, at

the same time, the god who, by means of his fiercely darting rays, could

spread disease and send sudden death to men and animals; and it is to this

phase of his character that we must look for the explanation of his being

considered, in conjunction with his twin-sister, Artemis (as moon-goddess),

a divinity of death. The brother and sister share this function between

them, he taking man and she woman as her aim, and those especially who died

in the bloom of youth, or at an advanced age, were believed to have been

killed by their gentle arrows. But Apollo did not always send an easy

death. We see in the _Iliad_ how, when angry with the Greeks, the "god of

the silver bow" strode down from Olympus, with his quiver full of

death-bringing darts, and sent a raging pestilence into their camp. For

nine days he let fly his fatal arrows, first on animals and then on men,

till the air became darkened with the smoke from the funeral pyres.

In his character as god of light, Phoebus-Apollo is the protecting deity of

shepherds, because it is he who warms {71} the fields and meadows, and

gives rich pastures to the flocks, thereby gladdening the heart of the

herdsman.

As the temperate heat of the sun exercises so invigorating an effect on man

and animals, and promotes the growth of those medicinal herbs and vegetable

productions necessary for the cure of diseases, Phoebus-Apollo was supposed

to possess the power of restoring life and health; hence he was regarded as

the god of healing; but this feature in his character we shall find more

particularly developed in his son Asclepius (AEsculapius), the veritable god

of the healing art.

Pursuing our analysis of the various phases in the character of

Phoebus-Apollo, we find that with the first beams of his genial light, all

nature awakens to renewed life, and the woods re-echo with the jubilant

sound of the untaught lays, warbled by thousands of feathered choristers.

Hence, by a natural inference, he is the god of music, and as, according to

the belief of the ancients, the inspirations of genius were inseparably

connected with the glorious light of heaven, he is also the god of poetry,

and acts as the special patron of the arts and sciences. Apollo is himself

the heavenly musician among the Olympic gods, whose banquets are gladdened

by the wondrous strains which he produces from his favourite instrument,

the seven-stringed lyre. In the cultus of Apollo, music formed a

distinguishing feature. All sacred dances, and even the sacrifices in his

honour, were performed to the sound of musical instruments; and it is, in a

great measure, owing to the influence which the music in his worship

exercised on the Greek nation, that Apollo came to be regarded as the

leader of the nine Muses, the legitimate divinities of poetry and song. In

this character he is called Musagetes, and is always represented robed in a

long flowing garment; his lyre, to the tones of which he appears to be

singing, is suspended by a band across the chest; his head is encircled by

a wreath of laurel, and his long hair, streaming down over his shoulders,

gives him a somewhat effeminate appearance.

And now we must view the glorious god of light under {72} another, and (as

far as regards his influence over the Greek nation) a much more important

aspect; for, in historical times, all the other functions and attributes of

Apollo sink into comparative insignificance before the great power which he

exercised as god of prophecy. It is true that all Greek gods were endowed,

to a certain extent, with the faculty of foretelling future events; but

Apollo, as sun-god, was the concentration of all prophetic power, as it was

supposed that nothing escaped his all-seeing eye, which penetrated the most

hidden recesses, and laid bare the secrets which lay concealed behind the

dark veil of the future.

We have seen that when Apollo assumed his god-like form, he took his place

among the immortals; but he had not long enjoyed the rapturous delights of

Olympus, before he felt within him an ardent desire to fulfil his great

mission of interpreting to mankind the will of his mighty father. He

accordingly descended to earth, and travelled through many countries,

seeking a fitting site upon which to establish an oracle. At length he

reached the southern side of the rocky heights of Parnassus, beneath which

lay the harbour of Crissa. Here, under the overhanging cliff, he found a

secluded spot, where, from the most ancient times, there had existed an

oracle, in which Gaea herself had revealed the future to man, and which, in

Deucalion's time, she had resigned to Themis. It was guarded by the huge

serpent Python, the scourge of the surrounding neighbourhood, and the

terror alike of men and cattle. The young god, full of confidence in his

unerring aim, attacked and slew the monster with his arrows, thus freeing

land and people from their mighty enemy.

The grateful inhabitants, anxious to do honour to their deliverer, flocked

round Apollo, who proceeded to mark out a plan for a temple, and, with the

assistance of numbers of eager volunteers, a suitable edifice was soon

erected. It now became necessary to choose ministers, who would offer up

sacrifices, interpret his prophecies to the people, and take charge of the

temple. Looking round, he saw in the far distance a vessel bound from Crete

to the {73} Peloponnesus, and determined to avail himself of her crew for

his service. Assuming the shape of an enormous dolphin, he agitated the

waters to such a degree, that the ship was tossed violently to and fro, to

the great alarm of the mariners; at the same time he raised a mighty wind,

which drove the ship into the harbour of Crissa, where she ran aground. The

terrified sailors dared not set foot on shore; but Apollo, under the form

of a vigorous youth, stepped down to the vessel, revealed himself in his

true character, and informed them that it was he who had driven them to

Crissa, in order that they might become his priests, and serve him in his

temple. Arrived at the sacred fane, he instructed them how to perform the

services in his honour, and desired them to worship him under the name of

Apollo-Delphinios, because he had first appeared to them under the form of

a dolphin. Thus was established the far-famed oracle of Delphi, the only

institution of the kind which was not exclusively national, for it was

consulted by Lydians, Phrygians, Etruscans, Romans, &c., and, in fact, was

held in the highest repute all over the world. In obedience to its decrees,

the laws of Lycurgus were introduced, and the earliest Greek colonies

founded. No cities were built without first consulting the Delphic oracle,

for it was believed that Apollo took special delight in the founding of

cities, the first stone of which he laid in person; nor was any enterprise

ever undertaken, without inquiring at this sacred fane as to its probable

success.

But that which brought Apollo more closely home to the hearts of the

people, and raised the whole moral tone of the Greek nation, was the

belief, gradually developed with the intelligence of the people, that he

was the god who accepted repentance as an atonement for sin, who pardoned

the contrite sinner, and who acted as the special protector of those, who,

like Orestes, had committed a crime, which required long years of

expiation.

Apollo is represented by the poets as being eternally young; his

countenance, glowing with joyous life, is the embodiment of immortal

beauty; his eyes are of a deep {74} blue; his forehead low, but broad and

intellectual; his hair, which falls over his shoulders in long waving

locks, is of a golden, or warm chestnut hue. He is crowned with laurel, and

wears a purple robe; in his hand he bears his silver bow, which is unbent

when he smiles, but ready for use when he menaces evil-doers.

But Apollo, the eternally beautiful youth, the perfection of all that is

graceful and refined, rarely seems to have been happy in his love; either

his advances met with a repulse, or his union with the object of his

affection was attended with fatal consequences.

His first love was Daphne (daughter of Peneus, the river-god), who was so

averse to marriage that she entreated her father to allow her to lead a

life of celibacy, and devote herself to the chase, which she loved to the

exclusion of all other pursuits. But one day, soon after his victory over

the Python, Apollo happened to see Eros bending his bow, and proud of his

own superior strength and skill, he laughed at the efforts of the little

archer, saying that such a weapon was more suited to the one who had just

killed the terrible serpent. Eros angrily replied that his arrow should

pierce the heart of the mocker himself, and flying off to the summit of

Mount Parnassus, he drew from his quiver two darts of different

workmanship--one of gold, which had the effect of inspiring love; the other

of lead, which created aversion. Taking aim at Apollo, he pierced his

breast with the golden shaft, whilst the leaden one he discharged into the

bosom of the beautiful Daphne. The son of Leto instantly felt the most

ardent affection for the nymph, who, on her part, evinced the greatest

dislike towards her divine lover, and, at his approach, fled from him like

a hunted deer. He called upon her in the most endearing accents to stay,

but she still sped on, until at length, becoming faint with fatigue, and

fearing that she was about to succumb, she called upon the gods to come to

her aid. Hardly had she uttered her prayer before a heavy torpor seized her

limbs, and just as Apollo threw out his arms to embrace her, she became

transformed {75} into a laurel-bush. He sorrowfully crowned his head with

its leaves, and declared, that in memory of his love, it should henceforth

remain evergreen, and be held sacred to him.

He next sought the love of Marpessa, the daughter of Evenus; but though her

father approved his suit, the maiden preferred a youth named Idas, who

contrived to carry her off in a winged chariot which he had procured from

Poseidon. Apollo pursued the fugitives, whom he quickly overtook, and

forcibly seizing the bride, refused to resign her. Zeus then interfered,

and declared that Marpessa herself must decide which of her lovers should

claim her as his wife. After due reflection she accepted Idas as her

husband, judiciously concluding that although the attractions of the divine

Apollo were superior to those of her lover, it would be wiser to unite

herself to a mortal, who, growing old with herself, would be less likely to

forsake her, when advancing years should rob her of her charms.

Cassandra, daughter of Priam, king of Troy, was another object of the love

of Apollo. She feigned to return his affection, and promised to marry him,

provided he would confer upon her the gift of prophecy; but having received

the boon she desired, the treacherous maiden refused to comply with the

conditions upon which it had been granted. Incensed at her breach of faith,

Apollo, unable to recall the gift he had bestowed, rendered it useless by

causing her predictions to fail in obtaining credence. Cassandra became

famous in history for her prophetic powers, but her prophecies were never

believed. For instance, she warned her brother Paris that if he brought

back a wife from Greece he would cause the destruction of his father's

house and kingdom; she also warned the Trojans not to admit the wooden

horse within the walls of the city, and foretold to Agamemnon all the

disasters which afterwards befell him.

Apollo afterwards married Coronis, a nymph of Larissa, and thought himself

happy in the possession of her faithful love; but once more he was doomed

to {76} disappointment, for one day his favourite bird, the crow, flew to

him with the intelligence that his wife had transferred her affections to a

youth of Haemonia. Apollo, burning with rage, instantly destroyed her with

one of his death-bringing darts. Too late he repented of his rashness, for

she had been tenderly beloved by him, and he would fain have recalled her

to life; but, although he exerted all his healing powers, his efforts were

in vain. He punished the crow for its garrulity by changing the colour of

its plumage from pure white to intense black, and forbade it to fly any

longer among the other birds.

Coronis left an infant son named Asclepius, who afterwards became god of

medicine. His powers were so extraordinary that he could not only cure the

sick, but could even restore the dead to life. At last Aides complained to

Zeus that the number of shades conducted to his dominions was daily

decreasing, and the great ruler of Olympus, fearing that mankind, thus

protected against sickness and death, would be able to defy the gods

themselves, killed Asclepius with one of his thunderbolts. The loss of his

highly gifted son so exasperated Apollo that, being unable to vent his

anger on Zeus, he destroyed the Cyclops, who had forged the fatal

thunderbolts. For this offence, Apollo would have been banished by Zeus to

Tartarus, but at the earnest intercession of Leto he partially relented,

and contented himself with depriving him of all power and dignity, and

imposing on him a temporary servitude in the house of Admetus, king of

Thessaly. Apollo faithfully served his royal master for nine years in the

humble capacity of a shepherd, and was treated by him with every kindness

and consideration. During the period of his service the king sought the

hand of Alcestis, the beautiful daughter of Pelias, son of Poseidon; but

her father declared that he would only resign her to the suitor who should

succeed in yoking a lion and a wild boar to his chariot. By the aid of his

divine herdsman, Admetus accomplished this difficult task, and gained his

bride. Nor was this the only favour which the king received from the exiled

god, for Apollo obtained from {77} the Fates the gift of immortality for

his benefactor, on condition that when his last hour approached, some

member of his own family should be willing to die in his stead. When the

fatal hour arrived, and Admetus felt that he was at the point of death, he

implored his aged parents to yield to him their few remaining days. But

"life is sweet" even to old age, and they both refused to make the

sacrifice demanded of them. Alcestis, however, who had secretly devoted

herself to death for her husband, was seized with a mortal sickness, which

kept pace with his rapid recovery. The devoted wife breathed her last in

the arms of Admetus, and he had just consigned her to the tomb, when

Heracles chanced to come to the palace. Admetus held the rites of

hospitality so sacred, that he at first kept silence with regard to his

great bereavement; but as soon as his friend heard what had occurred, he

bravely descended into the tomb, and when death came to claim his prey, he

exerted his marvellous strength, and held him in his arms, until he

promised to restore the beautiful and heroic queen to the bosom of her

family.

Whilst pursuing the peaceful life of a shepherd, Apollo formed a strong

friendship with two youths named Hyacinthus and Cyparissus, but the great

favour shown to them by the god did not suffice to shield them from

misfortune. The former was one day throwing the discus with Apollo, when,

running too eagerly to take up the one thrown by the god, he was struck on

the head with it and killed on the spot. Apollo was overcome with grief at

the sad end of his young favourite, but being unable to restore him to

life, he changed him into the flower called after him the Hyacinth.

Cyparissus had the misfortune to kill by accident one of Apollo's favourite

stags, which so preyed on his mind that he gradually pined away, and died

of a broken heart. He was transformed by the god into a cypress-tree, which

owes its name to this story.

After these sad occurrences Apollo quitted Thessaly and repaired to

Phrygia, in Asia Minor, where he met Poseidon, who, like himself, was in

exile, and condemned {78} to a temporary servitude on earth. The two gods

now entered the service of Laomedon, king of Troy, Apollo undertaking to

tend his flocks, and Poseidon to build the walls of the city. But Apollo

also contributed his assistance in the erection of those wonderful walls,

and, by the aid of his marvellous musical powers, the labours of his

fellow-worker, Poseidon, were rendered so light and easy that his otherwise

arduous task advanced with astonishing celerity; for, as the master-hand of

the god of music grasped the chords of his lyre,[30] the huge blocks of

stone moved of their own accord, adjusting themselves with the utmost

nicety into the places designed for them.

But though Apollo was so renowned in the art of music, there were two

individuals who had the effrontery to consider themselves equal to him in

this respect, and, accordingly, each challenged him to compete with them in

a musical contest. These were Marsyas and Pan. Marsyas was a satyr, who,

having picked up the flute which Athene had thrown away in disgust,

discovered, to his great delight and astonishment, that, in consequence of

its having touched the lips of a goddess, it played of itself in the most

charming manner. Marsyas, who was a great lover of music, and much beloved

on this account by all the elf-like denizens of the woods and glens, was so

intoxicated with joy at this discovery, that he foolishly challenged Apollo

to compete with him in a musical contest. The challenge being accepted, the

Muses were chosen umpires, and it was decided that the unsuccessful

candidate should suffer the punishment of being flayed alive. For a long

time the merits of both claimants remained so equally balanced, that it was

impossible to award the palm of victory to either, seeing which, Apollo,

resolved to conquer, added the sweet tones of his melodious voice to the

strains of his lyre, {79} and this at once turned the scale in his favour.

The unhappy Marsyas being defeated, had to undergo the terrible penalty,

and his untimely fate was universally lamented; indeed the Satyrs and

Dryads, his companions, wept so incessantly at his fate, that their tears,

uniting together, formed a river in Phrygia which is still known by the

name of Marsyas.

The result of the contest with Pan was by no means of so serious a

character. The god of shepherds having affirmed that he could play more

skilfully on his flute of seven reeds (the syrinx or Pan's pipe), than

Apollo on his world-renowned lyre, a contest ensued, in which Apollo was

pronounced the victor by all the judges appointed to decide between the

rival candidates. Midas, king of Phrygia, alone demurred at this decision,

having the bad taste to prefer the uncouth tones of the Pan's pipe to the

refined melodies of Apollo's lyre. Incensed at the obstinacy and stupidity

of the Phrygian king, Apollo punished him by giving him the ears of an ass.

Midas, horrified at being thus disfigured, determined to hide his disgrace

from his subjects by means of a cap; his barber, however, could not be kept

in ignorance of the fact, and was therefore bribed with rich gifts never to

reveal it. Finding, however, that he could not keep the secret any longer,

he dug a hole in the ground into which he whispered it; then closing up the

aperture he returned home, feeling greatly relieved at having thus eased

his mind of its burden. But after all, this very humiliating secret was

revealed to the world, for some reeds which sprung up from the spot

murmured incessantly, as they waved to and fro in the wind: "King Midas has

the ears of an ass."

In the sad and beautiful story of Niobe, daughter of Tantalus, and wife of

Amphion, king of Thebes, we have another instance of the severe punishments

meted out by Apollo to those who in any way incurred his displeasure. Niobe

was the proud mother of seven sons and seven daughters, and exulting in the

number of her children, she, upon one occasion, ridiculed the worship of

Leto, {80} because she had but one son and daughter, and desired the

Thebans, for the future, to give to her the honours and sacrifices which

they had hitherto offered to the mother of Apollo and Artemis. The

sacrilegious words had scarcely passed her lips before Apollo called upon

his sister Artemis to assist him in avenging the insult offered to their

mother, and soon their invisible arrows sped through the air. Apollo slew

all the sons, and Artemis had already slain all the daughters save one, the

youngest and best beloved, whom Niobe clasped in her arms, when the

agonized mother implored the enraged deities to leave her, at least, one

out of all her beautiful children; but, even as she prayed, the deadly

arrow reached the heart of this child also. Meanwhile the unhappy father,

unable to bear the loss of his children, had destroyed himself, and his

dead body lay beside the lifeless corpse of his favourite son. Widowed and

childless, the heart-broken mother sat among her dead, and the gods, in

pity for her unutterable woe, turned her into a stone, which they

transferred to Siphylus, her native Phrygian mountain, where it still

continues to shed tears.

[Illustration]

The punishment of Niobe forms the subject of a magnificent marble group,

which was found at Rome in the year 1553, and is now in the gallery of

Uffizi, at Florence.

The renowned singer Orpheus was the son of Apollo and Calliope, the muse of

epic poetry, and, as might be expected with parents so highly gifted, was

endowed with most distinguished intellectual qualifications. He was a poet,

a teacher of the religious doctrines known as the Orphic mysteries, and a

great musician, having inherited from his father an extraordinary genius

for music. {81} When he sang to the sweet tones of his lyre, he charmed all

nature, and summoned round him the wild beasts of the forests, who, under

the influence of his music, became tame and gentle as lambs. The madly

rushing torrents stopped their rapid course, and the very mountains and

trees moved from their places at the sound of his entrancing melodies.

Orpheus became united to a lovely nymph named Eurydice, the daughter of the

sea-god Nereus, whom he fondly loved. She was no less attached to him, and

their married life was full of joy and happiness. But it was only

short-lived; for Aristaeus,[31] the half-brother of Orpheus, having fallen

in love with the beautiful Eurydice, forcibly endeavoured to take her from

her husband, and as she fled across some fields to elude his pursuit, she

was bitten in the foot by a venomous snake, which lay concealed in the long

grass. Eurydice died of the wound, and her sorrowing husband filled the

groves and valleys with his piteous and unceasing lamentations.

His longing to behold her once more became at last so unconquerable, that

he determined to brave the horrors of the lower world, in order to entreat

Aides to restore to him his beloved wife. Armed only with his golden lyre,

the gift of Apollo, he descended into the gloomy depths of Hades, where his

heavenly music arrested for a while the torments of the unhappy sufferers.

The stone of Sisyphus remained motionless; Tantalus forgot his perpetual

thirst; the wheel of Ixion ceased to revolve; and even the Furies shed

tears, and withheld for a time their persecutions. Undismayed at the scenes

of horror and suffering which met his view on every side, he pursued his

way until he arrived at the palace of Aides. Presenting himself before the

throne on which sat the stony-hearted king and his consort Persephone,

Orpheus recounted his woes to the sound of his lyre. Moved to pity by his

sweet strains, they listened to his {82} melancholy story, and consented to

release Eurydice on condition that he should not look upon her until they

reached the upper world. Orpheus gladly promised to comply with this

injunction, and, followed by Eurydice, ascended the steep and gloomy path

which led to the realms of life and light. All went well until he was just

about to pass the extreme limits of Hades, when, forgetting for the moment

the hard condition, he turned to convince himself that his beloved wife was

really behind him. The glance was fatal, and destroyed all his hopes of

happiness; for, as he yearningly stretched out his arms to embrace her, she

was caught back, and vanished from his sight for ever. The grief of Orpheus

at this second loss was even more intense than before, and he now avoided

all human society. In vain did the nymphs, his once chosen companions,

endeavour to win him back to his accustomed haunts; their power to charm

was gone, and music was now his sole consolation. He wandered forth alone,

choosing the wildest and most secluded paths, and the hills and vales

resounded with his pathetic melodies. At last he happened to cross the path

of some Thracian women, who were performing the wild rites of Dionysus

(Bacchus), and in their mad fury at his refusing to join them, they

furiously attacked him, and tore him in pieces. In pity for his unhappy

fate, the Muses collected his remains, which they buried at the foot of

Mount Olympus, and the nightingale warbled a funeral dirge over his grave.

His head was thrown into the river Hebrus, and as it floated down the

stream, the lips still continued to murmur the beloved name of Eurydice.

The chief seat of the worship of Apollo was at Delphi, and here was the

most magnificent of all his temples, the foundation of which reaches far

beyond all historical knowledge, and which contained immense riches, the

offerings of kings and private persons, who had received favourable replies

from the oracle. The Greeks believed Delphi to be the central point of the

earth, because two eagles sent forth by Zeus, one from the east, the other

{83} from the west, were said to have arrived there at the same moment.

The Pythian games, celebrated in honour of the victory of Apollo over the

Python, took place at Delphi every four years. At the first celebration of

these games, gods, goddesses, and heroes contended for the prizes, which

were at first of gold or silver, but consisted, in later times, of simple

laurel wreaths.

On account of its being the place of his birth, the whole island of Delos

was consecrated to Apollo, where he was worshipped with great solemnity;

the greatest care was taken to preserve the sanctity of the spot, for which

reason no one was suffered to be buried there. At the foot of Mount Cynthus

was a splendid temple of Apollo which possessed an oracle, and was enriched

with magnificent offerings from all parts of Greece. Even foreign nations

held this island sacred, for when the Persians passed it on their way to

attack Greece, they not only sailed by, leaving it uninjured, but sent rich

presents to the temple. Games, called Delia, instituted by Theseus, were

celebrated at Delos every four years.

A festival termed the Gymnopedaea was held at Sparta in honour of Apollo, in

which boys sang the praises of the gods, and of the three hundred

Lacedaemonians who fell at the battle of Thermopylae.

Wolves and hawks were sacrificed to Apollo, and the birds sacred to him

were the hawk, raven, and swan.

ROMAN APOLLO.

The worship of Apollo never occupied the all-important position in Rome

which it held in Greece, nor was it introduced till a comparatively late

period. There was no sanctuary erected to this divinity until B.C. 430,

when the Romans, in order to avert a plague, built a temple in his honour;

but we do not find the worship of Apollo becoming in any way prominent

until the time of Augustus, who, having called upon this god for aid before

the famous battle of Actium, ascribed the victory which he {84} gained, to

his influence, and accordingly erected a temple there, which he enriched

with a portion of the spoil.

Augustus afterwards built another temple in honour of Apollo, on the

Palatine Hill, in which at the foot of his statue, were deposited two gilt

chests, containing the Sibylline oracles. These oracles were collected to

replace the Sibylline books originally preserved in the temple of Jupiter,

which were destroyed when that edifice was burned.

[Illustration]

The Sibyls were maidens who had received the gift of prophecy, and the

privilege of living to an incredible age. One of these Sibyls (known as the

Cumaean) appeared to Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome, offering

for sale nine books, which she informed him had been written by herself.

Not knowing who she was, Tarquin refused to buy them, upon which she burned

three, and returned with six, demanding the same price as before. Being

again driven away as an impostor, she again retired and burned three more,

returning with the remaining three, for which she still asked the same

price as at first. Tarquin, amazed at her inconsistency, now consulted the

Augurs, who blamed him for not having bought the nine books when they were

first offered to him, and desired him to secure the remaining three, at

whatever price they were to be had. He, accordingly, purchased the volumes,

which were found to contain predictions of great importance to the Romans.

After the disposal of the books, the Sibyl vanished, and was seen no more.

The most beautiful and renowned of all the statues of Apollo now in

existence, is that known as the Apollo Belvedere, which was found in 1503

among the ruins of {85} ancient Antium. It was purchased by Pope Julius

II., who removed it to the Belvedere of the Vatican, from whence it takes

its name, and where it has been, for more than three hundred years, the

admiration of the world. When Rome was taken, and plundered by the French,

this celebrated statue was transported to Paris, and placed in the museum

there, but in 1815 it was restored to its former place in the Vatican. The

attitude of the figure, which is more than seven feet high, is inimitable

in its freedom, grace, and majesty. The forehead is noble and intellectual,

and the whole countenance so exquisite in its beauty, that one pauses

spell-bound to gaze on so perfect a conception. The god has a very youthful

appearance, as is usual in all his representations, and with the exception

of a short mantle which falls from his shoulders, is unclothed. He stands

against the trunk of a tree, up which a serpent is creeping, and his left

arm is outstretched, as though about to punish.

HECATE.

Hecate would appear to have been originally a moon-goddess worshipped by

the Thracians. She became confounded, and eventually identified with Selene

and Persephone, and is one of those divinities of whom the ancients had

various conflicting accounts.

Hecate was the daughter of Perses and "gold-wreathed" Astraea (the starry

night[32]), and her sway extended over earth, heaven, and hell, for which

reason she is represented in works of art as a triple divinity, having

three female bodies, all young and beautiful, and united together.

In later times, when this divinity becomes identified with Persephone, she

is supposed to inhabit the lower world as a malignant deity, and

henceforward it is the gloomy, awe-inspiring side of her character which

alone {86} develops itself. She now presides over all practices connected

with witchcraft and enchantments, haunts sepulchres, and the point where

two roads cross, and lonely spots where murders have been committed. She

was supposed to be connected with the appearance of ghosts and spectres, to

possess unlimited influence over the powers of the lower world, and to be

able to lay to rest unearthly apparitions by her magic spells and

incantations.

Hecate appears as a gigantic woman, bearing a torch and a sword. Her feet

and hair are formed of snakes, and her passage is accompanied by voices of

thunder, weird shrieks and yells, and the deep baying and howling of dogs.

Her favour was propitiated by offerings and sacrifices, principally

consisting of black lambs. Her festivals were celebrated at night, by

torchlight, when these animals were offered to her, accompanied by many

peculiar ceremonies. These ceremonies were carried out with the minutest

attention to details, as it was believed that the omission of the slightest

particular would afford to her ministers, the evil spirits of the lower

world, who hovered round the worshippers, an opportunity for entering among

them, and exerting their baneful influence. At the end of every month food

was placed wherever two roads met, in readiness for her and other malignant

divinities.

In studying the peculiar characteristics which Hecate assumes when she

usurps the place of Persephone, the rightful mistress of the lower world,

we are reminded of the various superstitions with regard to spectres,

witchcraft, &c., which have, even down to our own times, exerted so

powerful an influence over the minds of the ignorant, and which would

appear to owe their origin to a remote pagan source.

SELENE (LUNA).

Just as Helios personified the sun, so his sister Selene represented the

moon, and was supposed to drive her {87} chariot across the sky whilst her

brother was reposing after the toils of the day.

When the shades of evening began to enfold the earth, the two milk-white

steeds of Selene rose out of the mysterious depths of Oceanus. Seated in a

silvery chariot, and accompanied by her daughter Herse, the goddess of the

dew, appeared the mild and gentle queen of the night, with a crescent on

her fair brow, a gauzy veil flowing behind, and a lighted torch in her

hand.

Selene greatly admired a beautiful young shepherd named Endymion, to whom

Zeus had accorded the privilege of eternal youth, combined with the faculty

of sleeping whenever he desired, and as long as he wished. Seeing this

lovely youth fast asleep on Mount Latmus, Selene was so struck with his

beauty, that she came down every night from heaven to watch over and

protect him.

ARTEMIS (DIANA).

Artemis was worshipped by the Greeks under various appellations, to each of

which belonged special characteristics. Thus she is known as the Arcadian,

Ephesian and Brauronian Artemis, and also as Selene-Artemis, and in order

fully to comprehend the worship of this divinity, we must consider her

under each aspect.

ARCADIAN ARTEMIS.

The Arcadian Artemis (the real Artemis of the Greeks) was the daughter of

Zeus and Leto, and twin-sister of Apollo. She was the goddess of Hunting

and Chastity, and having obtained from her father permission to lead a life

of celibacy, she ever remained a maiden-divinity. Artemis is the feminine

counterpart of her brother, the glorious god of Light, and, like him,

though she deals out destruction and sudden death to men and animals, she

is also able to alleviate suffering and cure diseases. Like Apollo also,

she is skilled in the use of the bow, but in a far more eminent degree, for

in the character of Artemis, who devoted herself to the chase with

passionate {88} ardour, this becomes an all-distinguishing feature. Armed

with her bow and quiver, and attended by her train of huntresses, who were

nymphs of the woods and springs, she roamed over the mountains in pursuit

of her favourite exercise, destroying in her course the wild animals of the

forest. When the chase was ended, Artemis and her maidens loved to assemble

in a shady grove, or on the banks of a favourite stream, where they joined

in the merry song, or graceful dance, and made the hills resound with their

joyous shouts.

As the type of purity and chastity, Artemis was especially venerated by

young maidens, who, before marrying, sacrificed their hair to her. She was

also the patroness of those vowed to celibacy, and punished severely any

infringement of their obligation.

The huntress-goddess is represented as being a head taller than her

attendant nymphs, and always appears as a youthful and slender maiden. Her

features are beautiful, but wanting in gentleness of expression; her hair

is gathered negligently into a knot at the back of her well-shaped head;

and her figure, though somewhat masculine, is most graceful in its attitude

and proportions. The short robe she wears, leaves her limbs free for the

exercise of the chase, her devotion to which is indicated by the quiver

which is slung over her shoulder, and the bow which she bears in her hand.

There are many famous statues of this divinity; but the most celebrated is

that known as the Diana of Versailles, now in the Louvre, which forms a not

unworthy companion to the Apollo-Belvedere of the Vatican. In this statue,

the goddess appears in the act of rescuing a hunted deer from its pursuers,

on whom she is turning with angry mien. One hand is laid protectingly on

the head of the stag, whilst with the other she draws an arrow from the

quiver which hangs over her shoulder.

Her attributes are the bow, quiver, and spear. The animals sacred to her

are the hind, dog, bear, and wild boar.

Artemis promptly resented any disregard or neglect of {89} her worship; a

remarkable instance of this is shown in the story of the Calydonian

boar-hunt, which is as follows:--

[Illustration]

Oeneus, king of Calydon in AEtolia, had incurred the displeasure of Artemis

by neglecting to include her in a general sacrifice to the gods which he

had offered up, out of gratitude for a bountiful harvest. The goddess,

enraged at this neglect, sent a wild boar of extraordinary size and

prodigious strength, which destroyed the sprouting grain, laid waste the

fields, and threatened the inhabitants with famine and death. At this

juncture, Meleager, the brave son of Oeneus, returned from the Argonautic

expedition, and finding his country ravaged by this dreadful scourge,

entreated the assistance of all the celebrated heroes of the age to join

him in hunting the ferocious monster. Among the most famous of those who

responded to his call were Jason, Castor and Pollux, Idas and Lynceus,

Peleus, Telamon, Admetus, Perithous, and Theseus. The brothers of Althea,

wife of Oeneus, joined the hunters, and Meleager also enlisted into his

service the fleet-footed huntress Atalanta.

The father of this maiden was Schoeneus, an Arcadian, who, disappointed at

the birth of a daughter when he had particularly desired a son, had exposed

her on the Parthenian Hill, where he left her to perish. Here she was

nursed by a she-bear, and at last found by some hunters, who reared her,

and gave her the name of Atalanta. As the maiden grew up, she became an

ardent {90} lover of the chase, and was alike distinguished for her beauty

and courage. Though often wooed, she led a life of strict celibacy, an

oracle having predicted that inevitable misfortune awaited her, should she

give herself in marriage to any of her numerous suitors.

Many of the heroes objected to hunt in company with a maiden; but Meleager,

who loved Atalanta, overcame their opposition, and the valiant band set out

on their expedition. Atalanta was the first to wound the boar with her

spear, but not before two of the heroes had met their death from his fierce

tusks. After a long and desperate encounter, Meleager succeeded in killing

the monster, and presented the head and hide to Atalanta, as trophies of

the victory. The uncles of Meleager, however, forcibly took the hide from

the maiden, claiming their right to the spoil as next of kin, if Meleager

resigned it. Artemis, whose anger was still unappeased, caused a violent

quarrel to arise between uncles and nephew, and, in the struggle which

ensued, Meleager killed his mother's brothers, and then restored the hide

to Atalanta. When Althea beheld the dead bodies of the slain heroes, her

grief and anger knew no bounds. She swore to revenge the death of her

brothers on her own son, and unfortunately for him, the instrument of

vengeance lay ready to her hand.

At the birth of Meleager, the Moirae, or Fates, entered the house of

Oeneus, and pointing to a piece of wood then burning on the hearth,

declared that as soon as it was consumed the babe would surely die. On

hearing this, Althea seized the brand, laid it up carefully in a chest, and

henceforth preserved it as her most precious possession. But now, love for

her son giving place to the resentment she felt against the murderer of her

brothers, she threw the fatal brand into the devouring flames. As it

consumed, the vigour of Meleager wasted away, and when it was reduced to

ashes, he expired. Repenting too late the terrible effects of her rash

deed, Althea, in remorse and despair, took away her own life.

The news of the courage and intrepidity displayed by {91} Atalanta in the

famous boar-hunt, being carried to the ears of her father, caused him to

acknowledge his long-lost child. Urged by him to choose one of her numerous

suitors, she consented to do so, but made it a condition that he alone, who

could outstrip her in the race, should become her husband, whilst those she

defeated should be put to death by her, with the lance which she bore in

her hand. Thus many suitors had perished, for the maiden was unequalled for

swiftness of foot, but at last a beautiful youth, named Hippomenes, who had

vainly endeavoured to win her love by his assiduous attentions in the

chase, ventured to enter the fatal lists. Knowing that only by stratagem

could he hope to be successful, he obtained, by the help of Aphrodite,

three golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides, which he threw down

at intervals during his course. Atalanta, secure of victory, stooped to

pick up the tempting fruit, and, in the meantime, Hippomenes arrived at the

goal. He became the husband of the lovely Atalanta, but forgot, in his

newly found happiness, the gratitude which he owed to Aphrodite, and the

goddess withdrew her favour from the pair. Not long after, the prediction

which foretold misfortune to Atalanta, in the event of her marriage, was

verified, for she and her husband, having strayed unsanctioned into a

sacred grove of Zeus, were both transformed into lions.

The trophies of the ever-memorable boar-hunt had been carried by Atalanta

into Arcadia, and, for many centuries, the identical hide and enormous

tusks of the Calydonian boar hung in the temple of Athene at Tegea. The

tusks were afterwards conveyed to Rome, and shown there among other

curiosities.

A forcible instance of the manner in which Artemis resented any intrusion

on her retirement, is seen in the fate which befell the famous hunter

Actaeon, who happening one day to see Artemis and her attendants bathing,

imprudently ventured to approach the spot. The goddess, incensed at his

audacity, sprinkled him with water, and transformed him into a stag,

whereupon he was torn in pieces and devoured by his own dogs. {92}

EPHESIAN ARTEMIS.

The Ephesian Artemis, known to us as "Diana of the Ephesians," was a very

ancient Asiatic divinity of Persian origin called Metra,[33] whose worship

the Greek colonists found already established, when they first settled in

Asia Minor, and whom they identified with their own Greek Artemis, though

she really possessed but one single attribute in common with their home

deity.

Metra was a twofold divinity, and represented, in one phase of her

character, all-pervading love; in the other she was the light of heaven;

and as Artemis, in her character as Selene, was the only Greek female

divinity who represented celestial light, the Greek settlers, according to

their custom of fusing foreign deities into their own, seized at once upon

this point of resemblance, and decided that Metra should henceforth be

regarded as identical with Artemis.

In her character as the love which pervades all nature, and penetrates

everywhere, they believed her also to be present in the mysterious Realm of

Shades, where she exercised her benign sway, replacing to a certain extent

that ancient divinity Hecate, and partly usurping also the place of

Persephone, as mistress of the lower world. Thus they believed that it was

she who permitted the spirits of the departed to revisit the earth, in

order to communicate with those they loved, and to give them timely warning

of coming evil. In fact, this great, mighty, and omnipresent power of love,

as embodied in the Ephesian Artemis, was believed by the great thinkers of

old, to be the ruling spirit of the universe, and it was to her influence,

that all the mysterious and beneficent workings of nature were ascribed.

There was a magnificent temple erected to this divinity at Ephesus (a city

of Asia Minor), which was ranked among the seven wonders of the world, and

was unequalled in beauty and grandeur. The interior of this {93} edifice

was adorned with statues and paintings, and contained one hundred and

twenty-seven columns, sixty feet in height, each column having been placed

there by a different king. The wealth deposited in this temple was

enormous, and the goddess was here worshipped with particular awe and

solemnity. In the interior of the edifice stood a statue of her, formed of

ebony, with lions on her arms and turrets on her head, whilst a number of

breasts indicated the fruitfulness of the earth and of nature. Ctesiphon

was the principal architect of this world-renowned structure, which,

however, was not entirely completed till two hundred and twenty years after

the foundation-stone was laid. But the labour of centuries was destroyed in

a single night; for a man called Herostratus, seized with the insane desire

of making his name famous to all succeeding generations, set fire to it and

completely destroyed it.[34] So great was the indignation and sorrow of the

Ephesians at this calamity, that they enacted a law, forbidding the

incendiary's name to be mentioned, thereby however, defeating their own

object, for thus the name of Herostratus has been handed down to posterity,

and will live as long as the memory of the famous temple of Ephesus.

BRAURONIAN ARTEMIS.

In ancient times, the country which we now call the Crimea, was known by

the name of the Taurica Chersonnesus. It was colonized by Greek settlers,

who, finding that the Scythian inhabitants had a native divinity somewhat

resembling their own Artemis, identified her with the huntress-goddess of

the mother-country. The worship of this Taurian Artemis was attended with

the most barbarous practices, for, in accordance with a law which she had

enacted, all strangers, whether male or female, landing, or shipwrecked on

her shores, were sacrificed upon her altars. It is supposed that this

decree was {94} issued by the Taurian goddess of Chastity, to protect the

purity of her followers, by keeping them apart from foreign influences.

The interesting story of Iphigenia, a priestess in the temple of Artemis at

Tauris, forms the subject of one of Schiller's most beautiful plays. The

circumstances occurred at the commencement of the Trojan war, and are as

follows:--The fleet, collected by the Greeks for the siege of Troy, had

assembled at Aulis, in Boeotia, and was about to set sail, when Agamemnon,

the commander-in-chief, had the misfortune to kill accidentally a stag

which was grazing in a grove, sacred to Artemis. The offended goddess sent

continuous calms that delayed the departure of the fleet, and Calchas, the

soothsayer, who had accompanied the expedition, declared that nothing less

than the sacrifice of Agamemnon's favorite daughter, Iphigenia, would

appease the wrath of the goddess. At these words, the heroic heart of the

brave leader sank within him, and he declared that rather than consent to

so fearful an alternative, he would give up his share in the expedition and

return to Argos. In this dilemma Odysseus and other great generals called a

council to discuss the matter, and, after much deliberation, it was decided

that private feeling must yield to the welfare of the state. For a long

time the unhappy Agamemnon turned a deaf ear to their arguments, but at

last they succeeded in persuading him that it was his duty to make the

sacrifice. He, accordingly, despatched a messenger to his wife,

Clytemnaestra, begging her to send Iphigenia to him, alleging as a pretext

that the great hero Achilles desired to make her his wife. Rejoicing at the

brilliant destiny which awaited her beautiful daughter, the fond mother at

once obeyed the command, and sent her to Aulis. When the maiden arrived at

her destination, and discovered, to her horror, the dreadful fate which

awaited her, she threw herself in an agony of grief at her father's feet,

and with sobs and tears entreated him to have mercy on her, and to spare

her young life. But alas! her doom was sealed, and her now repentant and

{95} heart-broken father was powerless to avert it. The unfortunate victim

was bound to the altar, and already the fatal knife was raised to deal the

death-blow, when suddenly Iphigenia disappeared from view, and in her place

on the altar, lay a beautiful deer ready to be sacrificed. It was Artemis

herself, who, pitying the youth and beauty of her victim, caused her to be

conveyed in a cloud to Taurica, where she became one of her priestesses,

and intrusted with the charge of her temple; a dignity, however, which

necessitated the offering of those human sacrifices presented to Artemis.

Many years passed away, during which time the long and wearisome siege of

Troy had come to an end, and the brave Agamemnon had returned home to meet

death at the hands of his wife and Aegisthus. But his daughter, Iphigenia,

was still an exile from her native country, and continued to perform the

terrible duties which her office involved. She had long given up all hopes

of ever being restored to her friends, when one day two Greek strangers

landed on Taurica's inhospitable shores. These were Orestes and Pylades,

whose romantic attachment to each other has made their names synonymous for

devoted self-sacrificing friendship. Orestes was Iphigenia's brother, and

Pylades her cousin, and their object in undertaking an expedition fraught

with so much peril, was to obtain the statue of the Taurian Artemis.

Orestes, having incurred the anger of the Furies for avenging the murder of

his father Agamemnon, was pursued by them wherever he went, until at last

he was informed by the oracle of Delphi that, in order to pacify them, he

must convey the image of the Taurian Artemis from Tauris to Attica. This he

at once resolved to do, and accompanied by his faithful friend Pylades, who

insisted on sharing the dangers of the undertaking, he set out for Taurica.

But the unfortunate youths had hardly stepped on shore before they were

seized by the natives, who, as usual, conveyed them for sacrifice to the

temple of Artemis. Iphigenia, discovering that they were Greeks, though

unaware of their near relationship to herself, thought the {96} opportunity

a favourable one for sending tidings of her existence to her native

country, and, accordingly, requested one of the strangers to be the bearer

of a letter from her to her family. A magnanimous dispute now arose between

the friends, and each besought the other to accept the precious privilege

of life and freedom. Pylades, at length overcome by the urgent entreaties

of Orestes, agreed to be the bearer of the missive, but on looking more

closely at the superscription, he observed, to his intense surprise, that

it was addressed to Orestes. Hereupon an explanation followed; the brother

and sister recognized each other, amid joyful tears and loving embraces,

and assisted by her friends and kinsmen, Iphigenia escaped with them from a

country where she had spent so many unhappy days, and witnessed so many

scenes of horror and anguish.

The fugitives, having contrived to obtain the image of the Taurian Artemis,

carried it with them to Brauron in Attica. This divinity was henceforth

known as the Brauronian Artemis, and the rites which had rendered her

worship so infamous in Taurica were now introduced into Greece, and human

victims bled freely under the sacrificial knife, both in Athens and Sparta.

The revolting practice of offering human sacrifices to her, was continued

until the time of Lycurgus, the great Spartan lawgiver, who put an end to

it by substituting in its place one, which was hardly less barbarous,

namely, the scourging of youths, who were whipped on the altars of the

Brauronian Artemis in the most cruel manner; sometimes indeed they expired

under the lash, in which case their mothers, far from lamenting their fate,

are said to have rejoiced, considering this an honourable death for their

sons.

SELENE-ARTEMIS.

Hitherto we have seen Artemis only in the various phases of her terrestrial

character; but just as her brother Apollo drew into himself by degrees the

attributes of that more ancient divinity Helios, the sun-god, so, in like

manner, she came to be identified in later times {97} with Selene, the

moon-goddess, in which character she is always represented as wearing on

her forehead a glittering crescent, whilst a flowing veil, bespangled with

stars, reaches to her feet, and a long robe completely envelops her.

DIANA.

The Diana of the Romans was identified with the Greek Artemis, with whom

she shares that peculiar tripartite character, which so strongly marks the

individuality of the Greek goddess. In heaven she was Luna (the moon), on

earth Diana (the huntress-goddess), and in the lower world Proserpine; but,

unlike the Ephesian Artemis, Diana, in her character as Proserpine, carries

with her into the lower world no element of love or sympathy; she is, on

the contrary, characterized by practices altogether hostile to man, such as

the exercise of witchcraft, evil charms, and other antagonistic influences,

and is, in fact, the Greek Hecate, in her later development.

The statues of Diana were generally erected at a point where three roads

met, for which reason she is called Trivia (from _tri_, three, and _via_,

way).

A temple was dedicated to her on the Aventine hill by Servius Tullius, who

is said to have first introduced the worship of this divinity into Rome.

The Nemoralia, or Grove Festivals, were celebrated in her honour on the

13th of August, on the Lacus Nemorensis, or forest-buried lake, near

Aricia. The priest who officiated in her temple on this spot, was always a

fugitive slave, who had gained his office by murdering his predecessor, and

hence was constantly armed, in order that he might thus be prepared to

encounter a new aspirant.

HEPHAESTUS (VULCAN).

Hephaestus, the son of Zeus and Hera, was the god of fire in its beneficial

aspect, and the presiding deity over all workmanship accomplished by means

of this useful element. He was universally honoured, not only as the {98}

god of all mechanical arts, but also as a house and hearth divinity, who

exercised a beneficial influence on civilized society in general. Unlike

the other Greek divinities, he was ugly and deformed, being awkward in his

movements, and limping in his gait. This latter defect originated, as we

have already seen, in the wrath of his father Zeus, who hurled him down

from heaven[35] in consequence of his taking the part of Hera, in one of

the domestic disagreements, which so frequently arose between this royal

pair. Hephaestus was a whole day falling from Olympus to the earth, where he

at length alighted on the island of Lemnos. The inhabitants of the country,

seeing him descending through the air, received him in their arms; but in

spite of their care, his leg was broken by the fall, and he remained ever

afterwards lame in one foot. Grateful for the kindness of the Lemnians, he

henceforth took up his abode in their island, and there built for himself a

superb palace, and forges for the pursuit of his avocation. He instructed

the people how to work in metals, and also taught them other valuable and

useful arts.

It is said that the first work of Hephaestus was a most ingenious throne of

gold, with secret springs, which he presented to Hera. It was arranged in

such a manner that, once seated, she found herself unable to move, and

though all the gods endeavoured to extricate her, their efforts were

unavailing. Hephaestus thus revenged himself on his mother for the cruelty

she had always displayed towards him, on account of his want of comeliness

and grace. Dionysus, the wine god, contrived, however, to intoxicate

Hephaestus, and then induced him to return to Olympus, where, after having

released the {99} queen of heaven from her very undignified position, he

became reconciled to his parents.

He now built for himself a glorious palace on Olympus, of shining gold, and

made for the other deities those magnificent edifices which they inhabited.

He was assisted in his various and exquisitely skilful works of art, by two

female statues of pure gold, formed by his own hand, which possessed the

power of motion, and always accompanied him wherever he went. With the

assistance of the Cyclops, he forged for Zeus his wonderful thunderbolts,

thus investing his mighty father with a new power of terrible import. Zeus

testified his appreciation of this precious gift, by bestowing upon

Hephaestus the beautiful Aphrodite in marriage,[36] but this was a

questionable boon; for the lovely Aphrodite, who was the personification of

all grace and beauty, felt no affection for her ungainly and unattractive

spouse, and amused herself by ridiculing his awkward movements and

unsightly person. On one occasion especially, when Hephaestus good-naturedly

took upon himself the office of cup-bearer to the gods, his hobbling gait

and extreme awkwardness created the greatest mirth amongst the celestials,

in which his disloyal partner was the first to join, with unconcealed

merriment.

Aphrodite greatly preferred Ares to her husband, and this preference

naturally gave rise to much jealousy on the part of Hephaestus, and caused

them great unhappiness.

Hephaestus appears to have been an indispensable member of the Olympic

Assembly, where he plays the part of smith, armourer, chariot-builder, &c.

As already mentioned, he constructed the palaces where the gods resided,

fashioned the golden shoes with which they trod the air or water, built for

them their wonderful chariots, and shod with brass the horses of celestial

breed, which conveyed these glittering equipages over land and sea. He also

made the tripods which moved of themselves in and out of the celestial

halls, formed for Zeus the {100} far-famed aegis, and erected the

magnificent palace of the sun. He also created the brazen-footed bulls of

Aetes, which breathed flames from their nostrils, sent forth clouds of

smoke, and filled the air with their roaring.

Among his most renowned works of art for the use of mortals were: the

armour of Achilles and AEneas, the beautiful necklace of Harmonia, and the

crown of Ariadne; but his masterpiece was Pandora, of whom a detailed

account has already been given.

[Illustration]

There was a temple on Mount Etna erected in his honour, which none but the

pure and virtuous were permitted to enter. The entrance to this temple was

guarded by dogs, which possessed the extraordinary faculty of being able to

discriminate between the righteous and the unrighteous, fawning upon and

caressing the good, whilst they rushed upon all evil-doers and drove them

away.

Hephaestus is usually represented as a powerful, brawny, and very muscular

man of middle height and mature age; his strong uplifted arm is raised in

the act of striking the anvil with a hammer, which he holds in one hand,

whilst with the other he is turning a thunderbolt, which an eagle beside

him is waiting to carry to Zeus. The principal seat of his worship was the

island of Lemnos, where he was regarded with peculiar veneration.

VULCAN.

The Roman Vulcan was merely an importation from Greece, which never at any

time took firm root in Rome, nor entered largely into the actual life and

sympathies of the nation, his worship being unattended by the devotional

feeling and enthusiasm which characterized the religious rites of the other

deities. He still, however, retained in Rome his {101} Greek attributes as

god of fire, and unrivalled master of the art of working in metals, and was

ranked among the twelve great gods of Olympus, whose gilded statues were

arranged consecutively along the Forum. His Roman name, Vulcan, would seem

to indicate a connection with the first great metal-working artificer of

Biblical history, Tubal-Cain.

POSEIDON (NEPTUNE).

Poseidon was the son of Kronos and Rhea, and the brother of Zeus. He was

god of the sea, more particularly of the Mediterranean, and, like the

element over which he presided, was of a variable disposition, now

violently agitated, and now calm and placid, for which reason he is

sometimes represented by the poets as quiet and composed, and at others as

disturbed and angry.

[Illustration]

In the earliest ages of Greek mythology, he merely symbolized the watery

element; but in later times, as navigation and intercourse with other

nations engendered greater traffic by sea, Poseidon gained in importance,

and came to be regarded as a distinct divinity, holding indisputable

dominion over the sea, and over all sea-divinities, who acknowledged him as

their sovereign ruler. He possessed the power of causing at will, mighty

and destructive tempests, in which the billows rise mountains high, the

wind becomes a hurricane, land and sea being enveloped in thick mists,

whilst destruction assails the unfortunate mariners exposed to their fury.

On the other hand, his alone was the power of stilling the angry {102}

waves, of soothing the troubled waters, and granting safe voyages to

mariners. For this reason, Poseidon was always invoked and propitiated by a

libation before a voyage was undertaken, and sacrifices and thanksgivings

were gratefully offered to him after a safe and prosperous journey by sea.

The symbol of his power was the fisherman's fork or trident,[37] by means

of which he produced earthquakes, raised up islands from the bottom of the

sea, and caused wells to spring forth out of the earth.

Poseidon was essentially the presiding deity over fishermen, and was on

that account, more particularly worshipped and revered in countries

bordering on the sea-coast, where fish naturally formed a staple commodity

of trade. He was supposed to vent his displeasure by sending disastrous

inundations, which completely destroyed whole countries, and were usually

accompanied by terrible marine monsters, who swallowed up and devoured

those whom the floods had spared. It is probable that these sea-monsters

are the poetical figures which represent the demons of hunger and famine,

necessarily accompanying a general inundation.

Poseidon is generally represented as resembling his brother Zeus in

features, height, and general aspect; but we miss in the countenance of the

sea-god the kindness and benignity which so pleasingly distinguish his

mighty brother. The eyes are bright and piercing, and the contour of the

face somewhat sharper in its outline than that of Zeus, thus corresponding,

as it were, with his more angry and violent nature. His hair waves in dark,

disorderly masses over his shoulders; his chest is broad, and his frame

powerful and stalwart; he wears a short, curling beard, and a band round

his head. He usually appears standing erect in a graceful shell-chariot,

drawn by hippocamps, or sea-horses, with golden manes and brazen hoofs, who

bound over the dancing waves with such wonderful swiftness, that the

chariot scarcely touches {103} the water. The monsters of the deep,

acknowledging their mighty lord, gambol playfully around him, whilst the

sea joyfully smooths a path for the passage of its all-powerful ruler.

[Illustration]

He inhabited a beautiful palace at the bottom of the sea at AEgea in Euboea,

and also possessed a royal residence on Mount Olympus, which, however, he

only visited when his presence was required at the council of the gods.

His wonderful palace beneath the waters was of vast extent; in its lofty

and capacious halls thousands of his followers could assemble. The exterior

of the building was of bright gold, which the continual wash of the waters

preserved untarnished; in the interior, lofty and graceful columns

supported the gleaming dome. Everywhere fountains of glistening, silvery

water played; everywhere groves and arbours of feathery-leaved sea-plants

appeared, whilst rocks of pure crystal glistened with all the varied

colours of the rainbow. Some of the paths were strewn with white sparkling

sand, interspersed with jewels, pearls, and amber. This delightful abode

was surrounded on all sides by wide fields, where there were whole groves

of dark purple coralline, and tufts of beautiful scarlet-leaved plants, and

sea-anemones of every tint. Here grew bright, pinky sea-weeds, mosses of

all hues and shades, and tall grasses, which, growing upwards, formed

emerald caves and grottoes such as the Nereides love, whilst fish of

various kinds playfully darted in and out, in the full enjoyment of their

native element. Nor was illumination wanting in this fairy-like region,

which at night was lit up by the glow-worms of the deep.

But although Poseidon ruled with absolute power over the ocean and its

inhabitants, he nevertheless bowed submissively to the will of the great

ruler of Olympus, and appeared at all times desirous of conciliating him.

We {104} find him coming to his aid when emergency demanded, and frequently

rendering him valuable assistance against his opponents. At the time when

Zeus was harassed by the attacks of the Giants, he proved himself a most

powerful ally, engaging in single combat with a hideous giant named

Polybotes, whom he followed over the sea, and at last succeeded in

destroying, by hurling upon him the island of Cos.

These amicable relations between the brothers were, however, sometimes

interrupted. Thus, for instance, upon one occasion Poseidon joined Hera and

Athene in a secret conspiracy to seize upon the ruler of heaven, place him

in fetters, and deprive him of the sovereign power. The conspiracy being

discovered, Hera, as the chief instigator of this sacrilegious attempt on

the divine person of Zeus, was severely chastised, and even beaten, by her

enraged spouse, as a punishment for her rebellion and treachery, whilst

Poseidon was condemned, for the space of a whole year, to forego his

dominion over the sea, and it was at this time that, in conjunction with

Apollo, he built for Laomedon the walls of Troy.

Poseidon married a sea-nymph named Amphitrite, whom he wooed under the form

of a dolphin. She afterwards became jealous of a beautiful maiden called

Scylla, who was beloved by Poseidon, and in order to revenge herself she

threw some herbs into a well where Scylla was bathing, which had the effect

of metamorphosing her into a monster of terrible aspect, having twelve

feet, six heads with six long necks, and a voice which resembled the bark

of a dog. This awful monster is said to have inhabited a cave at a very

great height in the famous rock which still bears her name,[38] and was

supposed to swoop down from her rocky eminence upon every ship that passed,

and with each of her six heads to secure a victim.

Amphitrite is often represented assisting Poseidon in attaching the

sea-horses to his chariot.

{105}

The Cyclops, who have been already alluded to in the history of Cronus,

were the sons of Poseidon and Amphitrite. They were a wild race of gigantic

growth, similar in their nature to the earth-born Giants, and had only one

eye each in the middle of their foreheads. They led a lawless life,

possessing neither social manners nor fear of the gods, and were the

workmen of Hephaestus, whose workshop was supposed to be in the heart of the

volcanic mountain AEtna.

Here we have another striking instance of the manner in which the Greeks

personified the powers of nature, which they saw in active operation around

them. They beheld with awe, mingled with astonishment, the fire, stones,

and ashes which poured forth from the summit of this and other volcanic

mountains, and, with their vivacity of imagination, found a solution of the

mystery in the supposition, that the god of Fire must be busy at work with

his men in the depths of the earth, and that the mighty flames which they

beheld, issued in this manner from his subterranean forge.

The chief representative of the Cyclops was the man-eating monster

Polyphemus, described by Homer as having been blinded and outwitted at last

by Odysseus. This monster fell in love with a beautiful nymph called

Galatea; but, as may be supposed, his addresses were not acceptable to the

fair maiden, who rejected them in favour of a youth named Acis, upon which

Polyphemus, with his usual barbarity, destroyed the life of his rival by

throwing upon him a gigantic rock. The blood of the murdered Acis, gushing

out of the rock, formed a stream which still bears his name.

Triton, Rhoda,[39] and Benthesicyme were also children of Poseidon and

Amphitrite.

The sea-god was the father of two giant sons called Otus and Ephialtes.[40]

When only nine years old they {106} were said to be twenty-seven cubits[41]

in height and nine in breadth. These youthful giants were as rebellious as

they were powerful, even presuming to threaten the gods themselves with

hostilities. During the war of the Gigantomachia, they endeavoured to scale

heaven by piling mighty mountains one upon another. Already had they

succeeded in placing Mount Ossa on Olympus and Pelion on Ossa, when this

impious project was frustrated by Apollo, who destroyed them with his

arrows. It was supposed that had not their lives been thus cut off before

reaching maturity, their sacrilegious designs would have been carried into

effect.

Pelias and Neleus were also sons of Poseidon. Their mother Tyro was

attached to the river-god Enipeus, whose form Poseidon assumed, and thus

won her love. Pelias became afterwards famous in the story of the

Argonauts, and Neleus was the father of Nestor, who was distinguished in

the Trojan War.

The Greeks believed that it was to Poseidon they were indebted for the

existence of the horse, which he is said to have produced in the following

manner: Athene and Poseidon both claiming the right to name Cecropia (the

ancient name of Athens), a violent dispute arose, which was finally settled

by an assembly of the Olympian gods, who decided that whichever of the

contending parties presented mankind with the most useful gift, should

obtain the privilege of naming the city. Upon this Poseidon struck the

ground with his trident, and the horse sprang forth in all his untamed

strength and graceful beauty. From the spot which Athene touched with her

wand, issued the olive-tree, whereupon the gods unanimously awarded to her

the victory, declaring her gift to be the emblem of peace and plenty,

whilst that of Poseidon was thought to be the symbol of war and {107}

bloodshed. Athene accordingly called the city Athens, after herself, and it

has ever since retained this name.

Poseidon tamed the horse for the use of mankind, and was believed to have

taught men the art of managing horses by the bridle. The Isthmian games (so

named because they were held on the Isthmus of Corinth), in which horse and

chariot races were a distinguishing feature, were instituted in honour of

Poseidon.

He was more especially worshipped in the Peloponnesus, though universally

revered throughout Greece and in the south of Italy. His sacrifices were

generally black and white bulls, also wild boars and rams. His usual

attributes are the trident, horse, and dolphin.

In some parts of Greece this divinity was identified with the sea-god

Nereus, for which reason the Nereides, or daughters of Nereus, are

represented as accompanying him.

NEPTUNE.

The Romans worshipped Poseidon under the name of Neptune, and invested him

with all the attributes which belong to the Greek divinity.

The Roman commanders never undertook any naval expedition without

propitiating Neptune by a sacrifice.

His temple at Rome was in the Campus Martius, and the festivals

commemorated in his honour were called Neptunalia.

* * * * *

SEA DIVINITIES.

OCEANUS.

Oceanus was the son of Uranus and Gaea. He was the personification of the

ever-flowing stream, which, according to the primitive notions of the early

Greeks, encircled the world, and from which sprang all the rivers and

streams that watered the earth. He was married to Tethys, one of the

Titans, and was the father of a {108} numerous progeny called the

Oceanides, who are said to have been three thousand in number. He alone, of

all the Titans, refrained from taking part against Zeus in the

Titanomachia, and was, on that account, the only one of the primeval

divinities permitted to retain his dominion under the new dynasty.

NEREUS.

Nereus appears to have been the personification of the sea in its calm and

placid moods, and was, after Poseidon, the most important of the

sea-deities. He is represented as a kind and benevolent old man, possessing

the gift of prophecy, and presiding more particularly over the AEgean Sea,

of which he was considered to be the protecting spirit. There he dwelt with

his wife Doris and their fifty blooming daughters, the Nereides, beneath

the waves in a beautiful grotto-palace, and was ever ready to assist

distressed mariners in the hour of danger.

PROTEUS.

Proteus, more familiarly known as "The Old Man of the Sea," was a son of

Poseidon, and gifted with prophetic power. But he had an invincible

objection to being consulted in his capacity as seer, and those who wished

him to foretell events, watched for the hour of noon, when he was in the

habit of coming up to the island of Pharos,[42] with Poseidon's flock of

seals, which he tended at the bottom of the sea. Surrounded by these

creatures of the deep, he used to slumber beneath the grateful shade of the

rocks. This was the favourable moment to seize the prophet, who, in order

to avoid importunities, would change himself into an infinite variety of

forms. But patience gained the day; for if he were only held long enough,

he became wearied at last, and, resuming his true form, gave the

information desired, after which he dived down again to the bottom of the

sea, accompanied by the animals he tended.

{109}

[Illustration]

TRITON and the TRITONS.

Triton was the only son of Poseidon and Amphitrite, but he possessed little

influence, being altogether a minor divinity. He is usually represented as

preceding his father and acting as his trumpeter, using a conch-shell for

this purpose. He lived with his parents in their beautiful golden palace

beneath the sea at AEgea, and his favourite pastime was to ride over the

billows on horses or sea-monsters. Triton is always represented as half

man, half fish, the body below the waist terminating in the tail of a

dolphin. We frequently find mention of Tritons who are either the offspring

or kindred of Triton.

GLAUCUS.

Glaucus is said to have become a sea-divinity in the following manner.

While angling one day, he observed that the fish he caught and threw on the

bank, at once nibbled at the grass and then leaped back into the water. His

curiosity was naturally excited, and he proceeded to gratify it by taking

up a few blades and tasting them. No sooner was this done than, obeying an

irresistible impulse, he precipitated himself into the deep, and became a

sea-god.

Like most sea-divinities he was gifted with prophetic power, and each year

visited all the islands and coasts with a train of marine monsters,

foretelling all kinds of evil. Hence fishermen dreaded his approach, and

endeavoured, by prayer and fasting, to avert the misfortunes which he

prophesied. He is often represented floating on the billows, his body

covered with mussels, sea-weed, and shells, wearing a full beard and long

flowing hair, and bitterly bewailing his immortality.

{110}

THETIS.

The silver-footed, fair-haired Thetis, who plays an important part in the

mythology of Greece, was the daughter of Nereus, or, as some assert, of

Poseidon. Her grace and beauty were so remarkable that Zeus and Poseidon

both sought an alliance with her; but, as it had been foretold that a son

of hers would gain supremacy over his father, they relinquished their

intentions, and she became the wife of Peleus, son of AEacus. Like Proteus,

Thetis possessed the power of transforming herself into a variety of

different shapes, and when wooed by Peleus she exerted this power in order

to elude him. But, knowing that persistence would eventually succeed, he

held her fast until she assumed her true form. Their nuptials were

celebrated with the utmost pomp and magnificence, and were honoured by the

presence of all the gods and goddesses, with the exception of Eris. How the

goddess of discord resented her exclusion from the marriage festivities has

already been shown.

Thetis ever retained great influence over the mighty lord of heaven, which,

as we shall see hereafter, she used in favour of her renowned son,

Achilles, in the Trojan War.

When Halcyone plunged into the sea in despair after the shipwreck and death

of her husband King Ceyx, Thetis transformed both husband and wife into the

birds called kingfishers (halcyones), which, with the tender affection

which characterized the unfortunate couple, always fly in pairs. The idea

of the ancients was that these birds brought forth their young in nests,

which float on the surface of the sea in calm weather, before and after the

shortest day, when Thetis was said to keep the waters smooth and tranquil

for their especial benefit; hence the term "halcyon-days," which signifies

a period of rest and untroubled felicity.

{111}

THAUMAS, PHORCYS, and CETO.

The early Greeks, with their extraordinary power of personifying all and

every attribute of Nature, gave a distinct personality to those mighty

wonders of the deep, which, in all ages, have afforded matter of

speculation to educated and uneducated alike. Among these personifications

we find Thaumas, Phorcys, and their sister Ceto, who were the offspring of

Pontus.

Thaumas (whose name signifies Wonder) typifies that peculiar, translucent

condition of the surface of the sea when it reflects, mirror-like, various

images, and appears to hold in its transparent embrace the flaming stars

and illuminated cities, which are so frequently reflected on its glassy

bosom.

Thaumas married the lovely Electra (whose name signifies the sparkling

light produced by electricity), daughter of Oceanus. Her amber-coloured

hair was of such rare beauty that none of her fair-haired sisters could

compare with her, and when she wept, her tears, being too precious to be

lost, formed drops of shining amber.

Phorcys and Ceto personified more especially the hidden perils and terrors

of the ocean. They were the parents of the Gorgons, the Graea, and the

Dragon which guarded the golden apples of the Hesperides.

[Illustration]

LEUCOTHEA.

Leucothea was originally a mortal named Ino, daughter of Cadmus, king of

Thebes. She married Athamas, king of Orchomenus, who, incensed at her

unnatural conduct to her step-children,[43] pursued her and her son to the

sea-shore, when, seeing no hope of escape, she flung herself with her child

into the deep. They were kindly received by the Nereides, and became

sea-divinities under the name of Leucothea and Palaemon.

{112}

THE SIRENS.

The Sirens would appear to have been personifications of those numerous

rocks and unseen dangers, which abound on the S.W. coast of Italy. They

were sea-nymphs, with the upper part of the body that of a maiden and the

lower that of a sea-bird, having wings attached to their shoulders, and

were endowed with such wonderful voices, that their sweet songs are said to

have lured mariners to destruction.

ARES (MARS).

Ares, the son of Zeus and Hera, was the god of war, who gloried in strife

for its own sake; he loved the tumult and havoc of the battlefield, and

delighted in slaughter and extermination; in fact he presents no benevolent

aspect which could possibly react favourably upon human life.

Epic poets, in particular, represent the god of battles as a wild

ungovernable warrior, who passes through the armies like a whirlwind,

hurling to the ground the brave and cowardly alike; destroying chariots and

helmets, and triumphing over the terrible desolation which he produces.

In all the myths concerning Ares, his sister Athene ever appears in

opposition to him, endeavouring by every means in her power to defeat his

bloodthirsty designs. Thus she assists the divine hero Diomedes at the

siege of Troy, to overcome Ares in battle, and so well does he profit by

her timely aid, that he succeeds in wounding the sanguinary war-god, who

makes his exit from the field, roaring like ten thousand bulls.

{113}

Ares appears to have been an object of aversion to all the gods of Olympus,

Aphrodite alone excepted. As the son of Hera, he had inherited from his

mother the strongest feelings of independence and contradiction, and as he

took delight in upsetting that peaceful course of state-life which it was

pre-eminently the care of Zeus to establish, he was naturally disliked and

even hated by him.

When wounded by Diomedes, as above related, he complains to his father, but

receives no sympathy from the otherwise kindly and beneficent ruler of

Olympus, who thus angrily addresses him: "Do not trouble me with thy

complaints, thou who art of all the gods of Olympus most hateful to me, for

thou delightest in nought save war and strife. The very spirit of thy

mother lives in thee, and wert thou not my son, long ago wouldst thou have

lain deeper down in the bowels of the earth than the son of Uranus."

[Illustration]

Ares, upon one occasion, incurred the anger of Poseidon by slaying his son

Halirrhothios, who had insulted Alcippe, the daughter of the war-god. For

this deed, Poseidon summoned Ares to appear before the tribunal of the

Olympic gods, which was held upon a hill in Athens. Ares was acquitted, and

this event is supposed to have given rise to the name Areopagus (or Hill of

Ares), which afterwards became so famous as a court of justice. In the

Gigantomachia, Ares was defeated by the Aloidae, the two giant-sons of

Poseidon, who put him in chains, and kept him in prison for thirteen

months.

Ares is represented as a man of youthful appearance; his tall muscular form

combines great strength with wonderful agility. In his right hand he bears

a sword or a mighty lance, while on the left arm he carries his round

shield (see next page). His demoniacal surroundings are Terror and

Fear;[44] Enyo, the goddess of the war-cry; Keidomos, the demon of the

noise of battles; and Eris (Contention), his twin-sister and companion, who

always {114} precedes his chariot when he rushes to the fight, the latter

being evidently a simile of the poets to express the fact that war follows

contention.

Eris is represented as a woman of florid complexion, with dishevelled hair,

and her whole appearance angry and menacing. In one hand she brandishes a

poniard and a hissing adder, whilst in the other she carries a burning

torch. Her dress is torn and disorderly, and her hair intertwined with

venomous snakes. This divinity was never invoked by mortals, except when

they desired her assistance for the accomplishment of evil purposes.

MARS.

The Roman divinity most closely resembling the Greek Ares, and identified

with him, was called Mars, Mamers, and Marspiter or Father Mars.

The earliest Italian tribes, who were mostly engaged in the pursuit of

husbandry, regarded this deity more especially as the god of spring, who

vanquished the powers of winter, and encouraged the peaceful arts of

agriculture. But with the Romans, who were an essentially warlike nation,

Mars gradually loses his peaceful character, and, as god of war, attains,

after Jupiter, the highest position among the Olympic gods. The Romans

looked upon him as their special protector, and declared him to have been

the father of Romulus and Remus, the founders of their city. But although

he was especially {115} worshipped in Rome as god of war, he still

continued to preside over agriculture, and was also the protecting deity

who watched over the welfare of the state.

As the god who strode with warlike step to the battlefield, he was called

Gradivus (from _gradus_, a step), it being popularly believed by the Romans

that he himself marched before them to battle, and acted as their invisible

protector. As the presiding deity over agriculture, he was styled Sylvanus,

whilst in his character as guardian of the state, he bore the name of

Quirinus.[45]

The priests of Mars were twelve in number, and were called Salii, or the

dancers, from the fact that sacred dances, in full armour, formed an

important item in their peculiar ceremonial. This religious order, the

members of which were always chosen from the noblest families in Rome, was

first instituted by Numa Pompilius, who intrusted to their special charge

the Anciliae, or sacred shields. It is said that one morning, when Numa was

imploring the protection of Jupiter for the newly-founded city of Rome, the

god of heaven, as though in answer to his prayer, sent down an oblong

brazen shield, and, as it fell at the feet of the king, a voice was heard

announcing that on its preservation depended the future safety and

prosperity of Rome. In order, therefore, to lessen the chances of this

sacred treasure being abstracted, Numa caused eleven more to be made

exactly like it, which were then given into the care of the Salii.

The assistance and protection of the god of war was always solemnly invoked

before the departure of a Roman army for the field of battle, and any

reverses of fortune were invariably ascribed to his anger, which was

accordingly propitiated by means of extraordinary sin-offerings and

prayers.

In Rome a field, called the Campus Martius, was dedicated to Mars. It was a

large, open space, in which armies were collected and reviewed, general

assemblies of {116} the people held, and the young nobility trained to

martial exercises.

The most celebrated and magnificent of the numerous temples built by the

Romans in honour of this deity was the one erected by Augustus in the

Forum, to commemorate the overthrow of the murderers of Caesar.

Of all existing statues of Mars the most renowned is that in the Villa

Ludovisi at Rome, in which he is represented as a powerful, muscular man in

the full vigour of youth. The attitude is that of thoughtful repose, but

the short, curly hair, dilated nostrils, and strongly marked features leave

no doubt as to the force and turbulence of his character. At his feet, the

sculptor has placed the little god of love, who looks up all undaunted at

the mighty war-god, as though mischievously conscious that this unusually

quiet mood is attributable to his influence.

Religious festivals in honour of Mars were generally held in the month of

March; but he had also a festival on the Ides of October, when

chariot-races took place, after which, the right-hand horse of the team

which had drawn the victorious chariot, was sacrificed to him. In ancient

times, human sacrifices, more especially prisoners of war, were offered to

him; but, at a later period, this cruel practice was discontinued.

The attributes of this divinity are the helmet, shield, and spear. The

animals consecrated to him were the wolf, horse, vulture, and woodpecker.

Intimately associated with Mars in his character as god of war, was a

goddess called BELLONA, who was evidently the female divinity of battle

with one or other of the primitive nations of Italy (most probably the

Sabines), and is usually seen accompanying Mars, whose war-chariot she

guides. Bellona appears on the battle-field, inspired with mad rage,

cruelty, and the love of extermination. She is in full armour, her hair is

dishevelled, and she bears a scourge in one hand, and a lance in the other.

A temple was erected to her on the Campus Martius. Before the entrance to

this edifice stood a pillar, over which a spear was thrown when war was

publicly declared. {117}

NIKE (VICTORIA).

Nike, the goddess of victory, was the daughter of the Titan Pallas, and of

Styx, the presiding nymph of the river of that name in the lower world.

In her statues, Nike somewhat resembles Athene, but may easily be

recognized by her large, graceful wings and flowing drapery, which is

negligently fastened on the right shoulder, and only partially conceals her

lovely form. In her left hand, she holds aloft a crown of laurel, and in

the right, a palm-branch. In ancient sculpture, Nike is usually represented

in connection with colossal statues of Zeus or Pallas-Athene, in which case

she is life-sized, and stands on a ball, held in the open palm of the deity

she accompanies. Sometimes she is represented engaged in inscribing the

victory of a conqueror on his shield, her right foot being slightly raised

and placed on a ball.

A celebrated temple was erected to this divinity on the Acropolis at

Athens, which is still to be seen, and is in excellent preservation.

VICTORIA.

Under the name of Victoria, Nike was highly honoured by the Romans, with

whom love of conquest was an all-absorbing characteristic. There were

several sanctuaries in Rome dedicated to her, the principal of which was on

the Capitol, where it was the custom of generals, after success had

attended their arms, to erect statues of the goddess in commemoration of

their victories. The most magnificent of these statues, was that raised by

Augustus after the battle of Actium. A festival was celebrated in honour of

Nike on the 12th of April.

HERMES (MERCURY).

Hermes was the swift-footed messenger, and trusted ambassador of all the

gods, and conductor of shades to Hades. He presided over the rearing and

education of {118} the young, and encouraged gymnastic exercises and

athletic pursuits, for which reason, all gymnasiums and wrestling schools

throughout Greece were adorned with his statues. He is said to have

invented the alphabet, and to have taught the art of interpreting foreign

languages, and his versatility, sagacity, and cunning were so

extraordinary, that Zeus invariably chose him as his attendant, when,

disguised as a mortal, he journeyed on earth.

Hermes was worshipped as god of eloquence, most probably from the fact

that, in his office as ambassador, this faculty was indispensable to the

successful issue of the negotiations with which he was intrusted. He was

regarded as the god who granted increase and prosperity to flocks and

herds, and, on this account, was worshipped with special veneration by

herdsmen.

In ancient times, trade was conducted chiefly by means of the exchange of

cattle. Hermes, therefore, as god of herdsmen, came to be regarded as the

protector of merchants, and, as ready wit and adroitness are valuable

qualities both in buying and selling, he was also looked upon as the patron

of artifice and cunning. Indeed, so deeply was this notion rooted in the

minds of the Greek people, that he was popularly believed to be also god of

thieves, and of all persons who live by their wits.

[Illustration]

As the patron of commerce, Hermes was naturally supposed to be the promoter

of intercourse among nations; hence, he is essentially the god of

travellers, over whose safety he presided, and he severely punished those

who refused assistance to the lost or weary wayfarer. He was also guardian

of streets and roads, and his statues, called Hermae (which were pillars of

stone surmounted by a head of Hermes), were placed at cross-roads, and

frequently in streets and public squares.

Being the god of all undertakings in which gain was a feature, he was

worshipped as the giver of wealth and {119} good luck, and any unexpected

stroke of fortune was attributed to his influence. He also presided over

the game of dice, in which he is said to have been instructed by Apollo.

Hermes was the son of Zeus and Maia, the eldest and most beautiful of the

seven Pleiades (daughters of Atlas), and was born in a cave of Mount

Cyllene in Arcadia. As a mere babe, he exhibited an extraordinary faculty

for cunning and dissimulation; in fact, he was a thief from his cradle,

for, not many hours after his birth, we find him creeping stealthily out of

the cave in which he was born, in order to steal some oxen belonging to his

brother Apollo, who was at this time feeding the flocks of Admetus. But he

had not proceeded very far on his expedition before he found a tortoise,

which he killed, and, stretching seven strings across the empty shell,

invented a lyre, upon which he at once began to play with exquisite skill.

When he had sufficiently amused himself with the instrument, he placed it

in his cradle, and then resumed his journey to Pieria, where the cattle of

Admetus were grazing. Arriving at sunset at his destination, he succeeded

in separating fifty oxen from his brother's herd, which he now drove before

him, taking the precaution to cover his feet with sandals made of twigs of

myrtle, in order to escape detection. But the little rogue was not

unobserved, for the theft had been witnessed by an old shepherd named

Battus, who was tending the flocks of Neleus, king of Pylos (father of

Nestor). Hermes, frightened at being discovered, bribed him with the finest

cow in the herd not to betray him, and Battus promised to keep the secret.

But Hermes, astute as he was dishonest, determined to test the shepherd's

integrity. Feigning to go away, he assumed the form of Admetus, and then

returning to the spot offered the old man two of his best oxen if he would

disclose the author of the theft. The ruse succeeded, for the avaricious

shepherd, unable to resist the tempting bait, gave the desired information,

upon which Hermes, exerting his divine power, changed him into a lump of

touchstone, as a {120} punishment for his treachery and avarice. Hermes now

killed two of the oxen, which he sacrificed to himself and the other gods,

concealing the remainder in the cave. He then carefully extinguished the

fire, and, after throwing his twig shoes into the river Alpheus, returned

to Cyllene.

Apollo, by means of his all-seeing power, soon discovered who it was that

had robbed him, and hastening to Cyllene, demanded restitution of his

property. On his complaining to Maia of her son's conduct, she pointed to

the innocent babe then lying, apparently fast asleep, in his cradle,

whereupon, Apollo angrily aroused the pretended sleeper, and charged him

with the theft; but the child stoutly denied all knowledge of it, and so

cleverly did he play his part, that he even inquired in the most naive

manner what sort of animals cows were. Apollo threatened to throw him into

Tartarus if he would not confess the truth, but all to no purpose. At last,

he seized the babe in his arms, and brought him into the presence of his

august father, who was seated in the council chamber of the gods. Zeus

listened to the charge made by Apollo, and then sternly desired Hermes to

say where he had hidden the cattle. The child, who was still in

swaddling-clothes, looked up bravely into his father's face and said, "Now,

do I look capable of driving away a herd of cattle; I, who was only born

yesterday, and whose feet are much too soft and tender to tread in rough

places? Until this moment, I lay in sweet sleep on my mother's bosom, and

have never even crossed the threshold of our dwelling. You know well that I

am not guilty; but, if you wish, I will affirm it by the most solemn

oaths." As the child stood before him, looking the picture of innocence,

Zeus could not refrain from smiling at his cleverness and cunning, but,

being perfectly aware of his guilt, he commanded him to conduct Apollo to

the cave where he had concealed the herd, and Hermes, seeing that further

subterfuge was useless, unhesitatingly obeyed. But when the divine shepherd

was about to drive his cattle back into Pieria, Hermes, as though by

chance, touched the chords of his {121} lyre. Hitherto Apollo had heard

nothing but the music of his own three-stringed lyre and the syrinx, or

Pan's pipe, and, as he listened entranced to the delightful strains of this

new instrument, his longing to possess it became so great, that he gladly

offered the oxen in exchange, promising at the same time, to give Hermes

full dominion over flocks and herds, as well as over horses, and all the

wild animals of the woods and forests. The offer was accepted, and, a

reconciliation being thus effected between the brothers, Hermes became

henceforth god of herdsmen, whilst Apollo devoted himself enthusiastically

to the art of music.

[Illustration]

They now proceeded together to Olympus, where Apollo introduced Hermes as

his chosen friend and companion, and, having made him swear by the Styx,

that he would never steal his lyre or bow, nor invade his sanctuary at

Delphi, he presented him with the Caduceus, or golden wand. This wand was

surmounted by wings, and on presenting it to Hermes, Apollo informed him

that it possessed the faculty of uniting in love, all beings divided by

hate. Wishing to prove the truth of this assertion, Hermes threw it down

between two snakes which were fighting, whereupon the angry combatants

clasped each other in a loving embrace, and curling round the staff,

remained ever after permanently attached to it. The wand itself typified

power; the serpents, wisdom; and the wings, despatch--all qualities

characteristic of a trustworthy ambassador.

The young god was now presented by his father with a winged silver cap

(Petasus), and also with silver wings for his feet (Talaria), and was

forthwith appointed herald of the gods, and conductor of shades to Hades,

which office had hitherto been filled by Aides.

As messenger of the gods, we find him employed on all occasions requiring

special skill, tact, or despatch. Thus he conducts Hera, Athene, and

Aphrodite to Paris, leads Priam to Achilles to demand the body of Hector,

{122} binds Prometheus to Mount Caucasus, secures Ixion to the eternally

revolving wheel, destroys Argus, the hundred-eyed guardian of Io, &c. &c.

As conductor of shades, Hermes was always invoked by the dying to grant

them a safe and speedy passage across the Styx. He also possessed the power

of bringing back departed spirits to the upper world, and was, therefore,

the mediator between the living and the dead.

The poets relate many amusing stories of the youthful tricks played by this

mischief-loving god upon the other immortals. For instance, he had the

audacity to extract the Medusa's head from the shield of Athene, which he

playfully attached to the back of Hephaestus; he also stole the girdle of

Aphrodite; deprived Artemis of her arrows, and Ares of his spear, but these

acts were always performed with such graceful dexterity, combined with such

perfect good humour, that even the gods and goddesses he thus provoked,

were fain to pardon him, and he became a universal favourite with them all.

It is said that Hermes was one day flying over Athens, when, looking down

into the city, he beheld a number of maidens returning in solemn procession

from the temple of Pallas-Athene. Foremost among them was Herse, the

beautiful daughter of king Cecrops, and Hermes was so struck with her

exceeding loveliness that he determined to seek an interview with her. He

accordingly presented himself at the royal palace, and begged her sister

Agraulos to favour his suit; but, being of an avaricious turn of mind, she

refused to do so without the payment of an enormous sum of money. It did

not take the messenger of the gods long to obtain the means of fulfilling

this condition, and he soon returned with a well-filled purse. But

meanwhile Athene, to punish the cupidity of Agraulos, had caused the demon

of envy to take possession of her, and the consequence was, that, being

unable to contemplate the happiness of her sister, she sat down before the

door, and resolutely refused to allow Hermes to enter. He tried every

persuasion and blandishment in his power, but she still remained obstinate.

At last, his patience {123} being exhausted, he changed her into a mass of

black stone, and, the obstacle to his wishes being removed, he succeeded in

persuading Herse to become his wife.

[Illustration]

In his statues, Hermes is represented as a beardless youth, with broad

chest and graceful but muscular limbs; the face is handsome and

intelligent, and a genial smile of kindly benevolence plays round the

delicately chiselled lips.

As messenger of the gods he wears the Petasus and Talaria, and bears in his

hand the Caduceus or herald's staff.

As god of eloquence, he is often represented with chains of gold hanging

from his lips, whilst, as the patron of merchants, he bears a purse in his

hand.

The wonderful excavations in Olympia, to which allusion has already been

made, have brought to light an exquisite marble group of Hermes and the

infant Bacchus, by Praxiteles. In this great work of art, Hermes is

represented as a young and handsome man, who is looking down kindly and

affectionately at the child resting on his arm, but unfortunately nothing

remains of the infant save the right hand, which is laid lovingly on the

shoulder of his protector.

The sacrifices to Hermes consisted of incense, honey, cakes, pigs, and

especially lambs and young goats. As god of eloquence, the tongues of

animals were sacrificed to him.

MERCURY.

Mercury was the Roman god of commerce and gain. We find mention of a temple

having been erected to him {124} near the Circus Maximus as early as B.C.

495; and he had also a temple and a sacred fount near the Porta Capena.

Magic powers were ascribed to the latter, and on the festival of Mercury,

which took place on the 25th of May, it was the custom for merchants to

sprinkle themselves and their merchandise with this holy water, in order to

insure large profits from their wares.

The Fetiales (Roman priests whose duty it was to act as guardians of the

public faith) refused to recognize the identity of Mercury with Hermes, and

ordered him to be represented with a sacred branch as the emblem of peace,

instead of the Caduceus. In later times, however, he was completely

identified with the Greek Hermes.

DIONYSUS (BACCHUS).

Dionysus, also called Bacchus (from _bacca_, berry), was the god of wine,

and the personification of the blessings of Nature in general.

[Illustration]

The worship of this divinity, which is supposed to have been introduced

into Greece from Asia (in all probability from India), first took root in

Thrace, whence it gradually spread into other parts of Greece.

Dionysus was the son of Zeus and Semele, and was snatched by Zeus from the

devouring flames in which his mother perished, when he appeared to her in

all the splendour of his divine glory. The motherless child was intrusted

to the charge of Hermes, who conveyed him to Semele's sister, Ino. But

Hera, still implacable in her vengeance, visited Athamas, the husband of

Ino, with madness, {125} and the child's life being no longer safe, he was

transferred to the fostering care of the nymphs of Mount Nysa. An aged

satyr named Silenus, the son of Pan, took upon himself the office of

guardian and preceptor to the young god, who, in his turn, became much

attached to his kind tutor; hence we see Silenus always figuring as one of

the chief personages in the various expeditions of the wine-god.

Dionysus passed an innocent and uneventful childhood, roaming through the

woods and forests, surrounded by nymphs, satyrs, and shepherds. During one

of these rambles, he found a fruit growing wild, of a most refreshing and

cooling nature. This was the vine, from which he subsequently learnt to

extract a juice which formed a most exhilarating beverage. After his

companions had partaken freely of it, they felt their whole being pervaded

by an unwonted sense of pleasurable excitement, and gave full vent to their

overflowing exuberance, by shouting, singing, and dancing. Their numbers

were soon swelled by a crowd, eager to taste a beverage productive of such

extraordinary results, and anxious to join in the worship of a divinity to

whom they were indebted for this new enjoyment. Dionysus, on his part,

seeing how agreeably his discovery had affected his immediate followers,

resolved to extend the boon to mankind in general. He saw that wine, used

in moderation, would enable man to enjoy a happier, and more sociable

existence, and that, under its invigorating influence, the sorrowful might,

for a while, forget their grief and the sick their pain. He accordingly

gathered round him his zealous followers, and they set forth on their

travels, planting the vine and teaching its cultivation wherever they went.

We now behold Dionysus at the head of a large army composed of men, women,

fauns, and satyrs, all bearing in their hands the Thyrsus (a staff entwined

with vine-branches surmounted by a fir-cone), and clashing together cymbals

and other musical instruments. Seated in a chariot drawn by panthers, and

accompanied by thousands of enthusiastic followers, Dionysus made a

triumphal {126} progress through Syria, Egypt, Arabia, India, &c.,

conquering all before him, founding cities, and establishing on every side

a more civilized and sociable mode of life among the inhabitants of the

various countries through which he passed.

When Dionysus returned to Greece from his Eastern expedition, he

encountered great opposition from Lycurgus, king of Thrace, and Pentheus,

king of Thebes. The former, highly disapproving of the wild revels which

attended the worship of the wine-god, drove away his attendants, the nymphs

of Nysa, from that sacred mountain, and so effectually intimidated

Dionysus, that he precipitated himself into the sea, where he was received

into the arms of the ocean-nymph, Thetis. But the impious king bitterly

expiated his sacrilegious conduct. He was punished with the loss of his

reason, and, during one of his mad paroxysms, killed his own son Dryas,

whom he mistook for a vine.

Pentheus, king of Thebes, seeing his subjects so completely infatuated by

the riotous worship of this new divinity, and fearing the demoralizing

effects of the unseemly nocturnal orgies held in honour of the wine-god,

strictly prohibited his people from taking any part in the wild

Bacchanalian revels. Anxious to save him from the consequences of his

impiety, Dionysus appeared to him under the form of a youth in the king's

train, and earnestly warned him to desist from his denunciations. But the

well-meant admonition failed in its purpose, for Pentheus only became more

incensed at this interference, and, commanding Dionysus to be cast into

prison, caused the most cruel preparations to be made for his immediate

execution. But the god soon freed himself from his ignoble confinement, for

scarcely had his jailers departed, ere the prison-doors opened of

themselves, and, bursting asunder his iron chains, he escaped to rejoin his

devoted followers.

Meanwhile, the mother of the king and her sisters, inspired with

Bacchanalian fury, had repaired to Mount Cithaeron, in order to join the

worshippers of the {127} wine-god in those dreadful orgies which were

solemnized exclusively by women, and at which no man was allowed to be

present. Enraged at finding his commands thus openly disregarded by the

members of his own family, Pentheus resolved to witness for himself the

excesses of which he had heard such terrible reports, and for this purpose,

concealed himself behind a tree on Mount Cithaeron; but his hiding-place

being discovered, he was dragged out by the half-maddened crew of

Bacchantes and, horrible to relate, he was torn in pieces by his own mother

Agave and her two sisters.

An incident which occurred to Dionysus on one of his travels has been a

favourite subject with the classic poets. One day, as some Tyrrhenian

pirates approached the shores of Greece, they beheld Dionysus, in the form

of a beautiful youth, attired in radiant garments. Thinking to secure a

rich prize, they seized him, bound him, and conveyed him on board their

vessel, resolved to carry him with them to Asia and there sell him as a

slave. But the fetters dropped from his limbs, and the pilot, who was the

first to perceive the miracle, called upon his companions to restore the

youth carefully to the spot whence they had taken him, assuring them that

he was a god, and that adverse winds and storms would, in all probability,

result from their impious conduct. But, refusing to part with their

prisoner, they set sail for the open sea. Suddenly, to the alarm of all on

board, the ship stood still, masts and sails were covered with clustering

vines and wreaths of ivy-leaves, streams of fragrant wine inundated the

vessel, and heavenly strains of music were heard around. The terrified

crew, too late repentant, crowded round the pilot for protection, and

entreated him to steer for the shore. But the hour of retribution had

arrived. Dionysus assumed the form of a lion, whilst beside him appeared a

bear, which, with a terrific roar, rushed upon the captain and tore him in

pieces; the sailors, in an agony of terror, leaped overboard, and were

changed into dolphins. The discreet and pious steersman was alone permitted

to escape the fate of his companions, {128} and to him Dionysus, who had

resumed his true form, addressed words of kind and affectionate

encouragement, and announced his name and dignity. They now set sail, and

Dionysus desired the pilot to land him at the island of Naxos, where he

found the lovely Ariadne, daughter of Minos, king of Crete. She had been

abandoned by Theseus on this lonely spot, and, when Dionysus now beheld

her, was lying fast asleep on a rock, worn out with sorrow and weeping.

Wrapt in admiration, the god stood gazing at the beautiful vision before

him, and when she at length unclosed her eyes, he revealed himself to her,

and, in gentle tones, sought to banish her grief. Grateful for his kind

sympathy, coming as it did at a moment when she had deemed herself forsaken

and friendless, she gradually regained her former serenity, and, yielding

to his entreaties, consented to become his wife.

Dionysus, having established his worship in various parts of the world,

descended to the realm of shades in search of his ill-fated mother, whom he

conducted to Olympus, where, under the name of Thyone, she was admitted

into the assembly of the immortal gods.

Among the most noted worshippers of Dionysus was Midas,[46] the wealthy

king of Phrygia, the same who, as already related, gave judgment against

Apollo. Upon one occasion Silenus, the preceptor and friend of Dionysus,

being in an intoxicated condition, strayed into the rose-gardens of this

monarch, where he was found by some of the king's attendants, who bound him

with roses and conducted him to the presence of their royal master. Midas

treated the aged satyr with the greatest consideration, and, after

entertaining him hospitably for ten days, led him back to Dionysus, who was

so grateful for the kind attention shown to his old friend, that he offered

to grant Midas any favour he chose to demand; whereupon the avaricious

monarch, not content with his boundless wealth, and still thirsting for

more, desired that everything he touched might turn to gold. The request

was {129} complied with in so literal a sense, that the now wretched Midas

bitterly repented his folly and cupidity, for, when the pangs of hunger

assailed him, and he essayed to appease his cravings, the food became gold

ere he could swallow it; as he raised the cup of wine to his parched lips,

the sparkling draught was changed into the metal he had so coveted, and

when at length, wearied and faint, he stretched his aching frame on his

hitherto luxurious couch, this also was transformed into the substance

which had now become the curse of his existence. The despairing king at

last implored the god to take back the fatal gift, and Dionysus, pitying

his unhappy plight, desired him to bathe in the river Pactolus, a small

stream in Lydia, in order to lose the power which had become the bane of

his life. Midas joyfully obeying the injunction, was at once freed from the

consequences of his avaricious demand, and from this time forth the sands

of the river Pactolus have ever contained grains of gold.

Representations of Dionysus are of two kinds. According to the earliest

conceptions, he appears as a grave and dignified man in the prime of life;

his countenance is earnest, thoughtful, and benevolent; he wears a full

beard, and is draped from head to foot in the garb of an Eastern monarch.

But the sculptors of a later period represent him as a youth of singular

beauty, though of somewhat effeminate appearance; the expression of the

countenance is gentle and winning; the limbs are supple and gracefully

moulded; and the hair, which is adorned by a wreath of vine or ivy leaves,

falls over the shoulders in long curls. In one hand he bears the Thyrsus,

and in the other a drinking-cup with two handles, these being his

distinguishing attributes. He is often represented riding on a panther, or

seated in a chariot drawn by lions, tigers, panthers, or lynxes.

Being the god of wine, which is calculated to promote sociability, he

rarely appears alone, but is usually accompanied by Bacchantes, satyrs, and

mountain-nymphs.

The finest modern representation of Ariadne is that by Danneker, at

Frankfort-on-the-Maine. In this statue she {130} appears riding on a

panther; the beautiful upturned face inclines slightly over the left

shoulder; the features are regular and finely cut, and a wreath of

ivy-leaves encircles the well-shaped head. With her right hand she

gracefully clasps the folds of drapery which fall away negligently from her

rounded form, whilst the other rests lightly and caressingly on the head of

the animal.

Dionysus was regarded as the patron of the drama, and at the state festival

of the Dionysia, which was celebrated with great pomp in the city of

Athens, dramatic entertainments took place in his honour, for which all the

renowned Greek dramatists of antiquity composed their immortal tragedies

and comedies.

He was also a prophetic divinity, and possessed oracles, the principal of

which was that on Mount Rhodope in Thrace.

The tiger, lynx, panther, dolphin, serpent, and ass were sacred to this

god. His favourite plants were the vine, ivy, laurel, and asphodel. His

sacrifices consisted of goats, probably on account of their being

destructive to vineyards.

BACCHUS OR LIBER.

The Romans had a divinity called Liber who presided over vegetation, and

was, on this account, identified with the Greek Dionysus, and worshipped

under the name of Bacchus.

The festival of Liber, called the Liberalia, was celebrated on the 17th of

March.

AIDES (PLUTO).

Aides, Aidoneus, or Hades, was the son of Cronus and Rhea, and the youngest

brother of Zeus and Poseidon. He was the ruler of that subterranean region

called Erebus, which was inhabited by the shades or spirits of the dead,

and also by those dethroned and exiled deities who had been vanquished by

Zeus and his allies. Aides, the grim and gloomy monarch of this lower

world, was the {131} successor of Erebus, that ancient primeval divinity

after whom these realms were called.

The early Greeks regarded Aides in the light of their greatest foe, and

Homer tells us that he was "of all the gods the most detested," being in

their eyes the grim robber who stole from them their nearest and dearest,

and eventually deprived each of them of their share in terrestrial

existence. His name was so feared that it was never mentioned by mortals,

who, when they invoked him, struck the earth with their hands, and in

sacrificing to him turned away their faces.

The belief of the people with regard to a future state was, in the Homeric

age, a sad and cheerless one. It was supposed that when a mortal ceased to

exist, his spirit tenanted the shadowy outline of the human form it had

quitted. These shadows, or shades as they were called, were driven by Aides

into his dominions, where they passed their time, some in brooding over the

vicissitudes of fortune which they had experienced on earth, others in

regretting the lost pleasures they had enjoyed in life, but all in a

condition of semi-consciousness, from which the intellect could only be

roused to full activity by drinking of the blood of the sacrifices offered

to their shades by living friends, which, for a time, endowed them with

their former mental vigour. The only beings supposed to enjoy any happiness

in a future state were the heroes, whose acts of daring and deeds of

prowess had, during their life, reflected honour on the land of their

birth; and even these, according to Homer, pined after their career of

earthly activity. He tells us that when Odysseus visited the lower world at

the command of Circe, and held communion with the shades of the heroes of

the Trojan war, Achilles assured him that he would rather be the poorest

day-labourer on earth than reign supreme over the realm of shades.

The early Greek poets offer but scanty allusions to Erebus. Homer appears

purposely to envelop these realms in vagueness and mystery, in order,

probably, to heighten the sensation of awe inseparably connected with {132}

the lower world. In the Odyssey he describes the entrance to Erebus as

being beyond the furthermost edge of Oceanus, in the far west, where dwelt

the Cimmerians, enveloped in eternal mists and darkness.

In later times, however, in consequence of extended intercourse with

foreign nations, new ideas became gradually introduced, and we find

Egyptian theories with regard to a future state taking root in Greece,

which become eventually the religious belief of the whole nation. It is now

that the poets and philosophers, and more especially the teachers of the

Eleusinian Mysteries, begin to inculcate the doctrine of the future reward

and punishment of good and bad deeds. Aides, who had hitherto been regarded

as the dread enemy of mankind, who delights in his grim office, and keeps

the shades imprisoned in his dominions after withdrawing them from the joys

of existence, now receives them with hospitality and friendship, and Hermes

replaces him as conductor of shades to Hades. Under this new aspect Aides

usurps the functions of a totally different divinity called Plutus (the god

of riches), and is henceforth regarded as the giver of wealth to mankind,

in the shape of those precious metals which lie concealed in the bowels of

the earth.

The later poets mention various entrances to Erebus, which were for the

most part caves and fissures. There was one in the mountain of Taenarum,

another in Thesprotia, and a third, the most celebrated of all, in Italy,

near the pestiferous Lake Avernus, over which it is said no bird could fly,

so noxious were its exhalations.

In the dominions of Aides there were four great rivers, three of which had

to be crossed by all the shades. These three were Acheron (sorrow), Cocytus

(lamentation), and Styx (intense darkness), the sacred stream which flowed

nine times round these realms.

The shades were ferried over the Styx by the grim, unshaven old boatman

Charon, who, however, only took those whose bodies had received funereal

rites on earth, and who had brought with them his indispensable toll, which

was a small coin or obolus, usually placed under the {133} tongue of a dead

person for this purpose. If these conditions had not been fulfilled, the

unhappy shades were left behind to wander up and down the banks for a

hundred years as restless spirits.

On the opposite bank of the Styx was the tribunal of Minos, the supreme

judge, before whom all shades had to appear, and who, after hearing full

confession of their actions whilst on earth, pronounced the sentence of

happiness or misery to which their deeds had entitled them. This tribunal

was guarded by the terrible triple-headed dog Cerberus, who, with his three

necks bristling with snakes, lay at full length on the ground;--a

formidable sentinel, who permitted all shades to enter, but none to return.

The happy spirits, destined to enjoy the delights of Elysium, passed out on

the right, and proceeded to the golden palace where Aides and Persephone

held their royal court, from whom they received a kindly greeting, ere they

set out for the Elysian Fields which lay beyond.[47] This blissful region

was replete with all that could charm the senses or please the imagination;

the air was balmy and fragrant, rippling brooks flowed peacefully through

the smiling meadows, which glowed with the varied hues of a thousand

flowers, whilst the groves resounded with the joyous songs of birds. The

occupations and amusements of the happy shades were of the same nature as

those which they had delighted in whilst on earth. Here the warrior found

his horses, chariots, and arms, the musician his lyre, and the hunter his

quiver and bow.

In a secluded vale of Elysium there flowed a gentle, silent stream, called

Lethe (oblivion), whose waters had the effect of dispelling care, and

producing utter forgetfulness of former events. According to the

Pythagorean doctrine of the transmigration of souls, it was supposed that

after the shades had inhabited Elysium for a thousand years they were

destined to animate other bodies on {134} earth, and before leaving Elysium

they drank of the river Lethe, in order that they might enter upon their

new career without any remembrance of the past.

The guilty souls, after leaving the presence of Minos, were conducted to

the great judgment-hall of Hades, whose massive walls of solid adamant were

surrounded by the river Phlegethon, the waves of which rolled flames of

fire, and lit up, with their lurid glare, these awful realms. In the

interior sat the dread judge Rhadamanthus, who declared to each comer the

precise torments which awaited him in Tartarus. The wretched sinners were

then seized by the Furies, who scourged them with their whips, and dragged

them along to the great gate, which closed the opening to Tartarus, into

whose awful depths they were hurled, to suffer endless torture.

Tartarus was a vast and gloomy expanse, as far below Hades as the earth is

distant from the skies. There the Titans, fallen from their high estate,

dragged out a dreary and monotonous existence; there also were Otus and

Ephialtes, those giant sons of Poseidon, who, with impious hands, had

attempted to scale Olympus and dethrone its mighty ruler. Principal among

the sufferers in this abode of gloom were Tityus, Tantalus, Sisyphus,

Ixion, and the Danaides.

TITYUS, one of the earth-born giants, had insulted Hera on her way to

Peitho, for which offence Zeus flung him into Tartarus, where he suffered

dreadful torture, inflicted by two vultures, which perpetually gnawed his

liver.

TANTALUS was a wise and wealthy king of Lydia, with whom the gods

themselves condescended to associate; he was even permitted to sit at table

with Zeus, who delighted in his conversation, and listened with interest to

the wisdom of his observations. Tantalus, however, elated at these

distinguished marks of divine favour, presumed upon his position, and used

unbecoming language to Zeus himself; he also stole nectar and ambrosia from

the table of the gods, with which he regaled his friends; but his greatest

crime consisted in killing his own son, {135} Pelops, and serving him up at

one of the banquets to the gods, in order to test their omniscience. For

these heinous offences he was condemned by Zeus to eternal punishment in

Tartarus, where, tortured with an ever-burning thirst, he was plunged up to

the chin in water, which, as he stooped to drink, always receded from his

parched lips. Tall trees, with spreading branches laden with delicious

fruits, hung temptingly over his head; but no sooner did he raise himself

to grasp them, than a wind arose, and carried them beyond his reach.

SISYPHUS was a great tyrant who, according to some accounts, barbarously

murdered all travellers who came into his dominions, by hurling upon them

enormous pieces of rock. In punishment for his crimes he was condemned to

roll incessantly a huge block of stone up a steep hill, which, as soon as

it reached the summit, always rolled back again to the plain below.

IXION was a king of Thessaly to whom Zeus accorded the privilege of joining

the festive banquets of the gods; but, taking advantage of his exalted

position, he presumed to aspire to the favour of Hera, which so greatly

incensed Zeus, that he struck him with his thunderbolts, and commanded

Hermes to throw him into Tartarus, and bind him to an ever-revolving wheel.

The DANAIDES were the fifty daughters of Danaus, king of Argos, who had

married their fifty cousins, the sons of AEgyptus. By the command of their

father, who had been warned by an oracle that his son-in-law would cause

his death, they all killed their husbands in one night, Hypermnestra alone

excepted. Their punishment in the lower world was to fill with water a

vessel full of holes,--a never-ending and useless task.

[Illustration]

Aides is usually represented as a man of mature years and stern majestic

mien, bearing a striking resemblance to his brother Zeus; but the gloomy

and inexorable expression of the face contrasts forcibly with that peculiar

benignity which so characterizes the countenance of the mighty ruler of

heaven. He is seated on a throne of ebony, with his queen, the grave and

sad Persephone, {136} beside him, and wears a full beard, and long flowing

black hair, which hangs straight down over his forehead; in his hand he

either bears a two-pronged fork or the keys of the lower world, and at his

feet sits Cerberus. He is sometimes seen in a chariot of gold, drawn by

four black horses, and wearing on his head a helmet made for him by the

Cyclops, which rendered the wearer invisible. This helmet he frequently

lent to mortals and immortals.

Aides, who was universally worshipped throughout Greece, had temples

erected to his honour in Elis, Olympia, and also at Athens.

His sacrifices, which took place at night, consisted of black sheep, and

the blood, instead of being sprinkled on the altars or received in vessels,

as at other sacrifices, was permitted to run down into a trench, dug for

this purpose. The officiating priests wore black robes, and were crowned

with cypress.

The narcissus, maiden-hair, and cypress were sacred to this divinity.

PLUTO.

Before the introduction into Rome of the religion and literature of Greece,

the Romans had no belief in a realm of future happiness or misery,

corresponding to the Greek Hades; hence they had no god of the lower world

identical with Aides. They supposed that there was, in the centre of the

earth, a vast, gloomy, and impenetrably dark cavity called Orcus, which

formed a place of eternal rest for the dead. But with the introduction of

Greek mythology, the Roman Orcus became the Greek Hades, and {137} all the

Greek notions with regard to a future state now obtained with the Romans,

who worshipped Aides under the name of Pluto, his other appellations being

Dis (from _dives_, rich) and Orcus from the dominions over which he ruled.

In Rome there were no temples erected to this divinity.

PLUTUS.

Plutus, the son of Demeter and a mortal called Iasion, was the god of

wealth, and is represented as being lame when he makes his appearance, and

winged when he takes his departure. He was supposed to be both blind and

foolish, because he bestows his gifts without discrimination, and

frequently upon the most unworthy objects.

Plutus was believed to have his abode in the bowels of the earth, which was

probably the reason why, in later times, Aides became confounded with this

divinity.

* * * * *

MINOR DIVINITIES.

THE HARPIES.

[Illustration]

The Harpies, who, like the Furies, were employed by the gods as instruments

for the punishment of the guilty, were three female divinities, daughters

of Thaumas and Electra, called Aello, Ocypete, and Celaeno.

They were represented with the head of a fair-haired maiden and the body of

a vulture, and were perpetually devoured by the pangs of insatiable hunger,

which caused them to torment their victims by robbing them of their food;

this they either devoured with great {138} gluttony, or defiled in such a

manner as to render it unfit to be eaten.

Their wonderfully rapid flight far surpassed that of birds, or even of the

winds themselves. If any mortal suddenly and unaccountably disappeared, the

Harpies were believed to have carried him off. Thus they were supposed to

have borne away the daughters of King Pandareos to act as servants to the

Erinyes.

The Harpies would appear to be personifications of sudden tempests, which,

with ruthless violence, sweep over whole districts, carrying off or

injuring all before them.

ERINYES, EUMENIDES (FURIAE, DIRAE).

The Erinyes or Furies were female divinities who personified the torturing

pangs of an evil conscience, and the remorse which inevitably follows

wrong-doing.

Their names were Alecto, Megaera, and Tisiphone, and their origin was

variously accounted for. According to Hesiod, they sprang from the blood of

Uranus, when wounded by Cronus, and were hence supposed to be the

embodiment of all the terrible imprecations, which the defeated deity

called down upon the head of his rebellious son. According to other

accounts they were the daughters of Night.

Their place of abode was the lower world, where they were employed by Aides

and Persephone to chastise and torment those shades who, during their

earthly career, had committed crimes, and had not been reconciled to the

gods before descending to Hades.

But their sphere of action was not confined to the realm of shades, for

they appeared upon earth as the avenging deities who relentlessly pursued

and punished murderers, perjurers, those who had failed in duty to their

parents, in hospitality to strangers, or in the respect due to old age.

Nothing escaped the piercing glance of these terrible divinities, from whom

flight was unavailing, for no corner of the earth was so remote as {139} to

be beyond their reach, nor did any mortal dare to offer to their victims an

asylum from their persecutions.

The Furies are frequently represented with wings; their bodies are black,

blood drips from their eyes, and snakes twine in their hair. In their hands

they bear either a dagger, scourge, torch, or serpent.

When they pursued Orestes they constantly held up a mirror to his horrified

gaze, in which he beheld the face of his murdered mother.

These divinities were also called Eumenides, which signifies the

"well-meaning" or "soothed goddesses;" This appellation was given to them

because they were so feared and dreaded that people dared not call them by

their proper title, and hoped by this means to propitiate their wrath.

In later times the Furies came to be regarded as salutary agencies, who, by

severely punishing sin, upheld the cause of morality and social order, and

thus contributed to the welfare of mankind. They now lose their

awe-inspiring aspect, and are represented, more especially in Athens, as

earnest maidens, dressed, like Artemis, in short tunics suitable for the

chase, but still retaining, in their hands, the wand of office in the form

of a snake.

Their sacrifices consisted of black sheep and a libation composed of a

mixture of honey and water, called Nephalia. A celebrated temple was

erected to the Eumenides at Athens, near the Areopagus.

MOIRAE OR FATES (PARCAE).

The ancients believed that the duration of human existence and the

destinies of mortals were regulated by three sister-goddesses, called

Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos, who were the daughters of Zeus and Themis.

The power which they wielded over the fate of man was significantly

indicated under the figure of a thread, which they spun out for the life of

each human being from his birth to the grave. This occupation they divided

between them. Clotho wound the flax round the distaff, {140} ready for her

sister Lachesis, who span out the thread of life, which Atropos, with her

scissors, relentlessly snapt asunder, when the career of an individual was

about to terminate.

Homer speaks of one Moira only, the daughter of Night, who represents the

moral force by which the universe is governed, and to whom both mortals and

immortals were forced to submit, Zeus himself being powerless to avert her

decrees; but in later times this conception of one inexorable,

all-conquering fate became amplified by the poets into that above

described, and the Moirae are henceforth the special presiding deities over

the life and death of mortals.

The Moirae are represented by the poets as stern, inexorable female

divinities, aged, hideous, and also lame, which is evidently meant to

indicate the slow and halting march of destiny, which they controlled.

Painters and sculptors, on the other hand, depicted them as beautiful

maidens of a grave but kindly aspect.

There is a charming representation of Lachesis, which depicts her in all

the grace of youth and beauty. She is sitting spinning, and at her feet lie

two masks, one comic, the other tragic, as though to convey the idea, that,

to a divinity of fate, the brightest and saddest scenes of earthly

existence are alike indifferent, and that she quietly and steadily pursues

her occupation, regardless of human weal or woe.

When represented at the feet of Aides in the lower world they are clad in

dark robes; but when they appear in Olympus they wear bright garments,

bespangled with stars, and are seated on radiant thrones, with crowns on

their heads.

It was considered the function of the Moirae to indicate to the Furies the

precise torture which the wicked should undergo for their crimes.

They were regarded as prophetic divinities, and had sanctuaries in many

parts of Greece.

The Moirae are mentioned as assisting the Charites to conduct Persephone to

the upper world at her periodical {141} reunion with her mother Demeter.

They also appear in company with Eileithyia, goddess of birth.

NEMESIS.

Nemesis, the daughter of Nyx, represents that power which adjusts the

balance of human affairs, by awarding to each individual the fate which his

actions deserve. She rewards, humble, unacknowledged merit, punishes crime,

deprives the worthless of undeserved good fortune, humiliates the proud and

overbearing, and visits all evil on the wrong-doer; thus maintaining that

proper balance of things, which the Greeks recognized as a necessary

condition of all civilized life. But though Nemesis, in her original

character, was the distributor of rewards as well as punishments, the world

was so full of sin, that she found but little occupation in her first

capacity, and hence became finally regarded as the avenging goddess only.

We have seen a striking instance of the manner in which this divinity

punishes the proud and arrogant in the history of Niobe. Apollo and Artemis

were merely the instruments for avenging the insult offered to their

mother; but it was Nemesis who prompted the deed, and presided over its

execution.

Homer makes no mention of Nemesis; it is therefore evident that she was a

conception of later times, when higher views of morality had obtained among

the Greek nation.

Nemesis is represented as a beautiful woman of thoughtful and benign aspect

and regal bearing; a diadem crowns her majestic brow, and she bears in her

hand a rudder, balance, and cubit;--fitting emblems of the manner in which

she guides, weighs, and measures all human events. She is also sometimes

seen with a wheel, to symbolize the rapidity with which she executes

justice. As the avenger of evil she appears winged, bearing in her hand

either a scourge or a sword, and seated in a chariot drawn by griffins.

{142}

Nemesis is frequently called Adrastia, and also Rhamnusia, from Rhamnus in

Attica, the chief seat of her worship, which contained a celebrated statue

of the goddess.

Nemesis was worshipped by the Romans, (who invoked her on the Capitol), as

a divinity who possessed the power of averting the pernicious consequences

of envy.

NIGHT AND HER CHILDREN.

DEATH, SLEEP, AND DREAMS.

NYX (NOX).

Nyx, the daughter of Chaos, being the personification of Night, was,

according to the poetic ideas of the Greeks, considered to be the mother of

everything mysterious and inexplicable, such as death, sleep, dreams, &c.

She became united to Erebus, and their children were Aether and Hemera (Air

and Daylight), evidently a simile of the poets, to indicate that darkness

always precedes light.

Nyx inhabited a palace in the dark regions of the lower world, and is

represented as a beautiful woman, seated in a chariot, drawn by two black

horses. She is clothed in dark robes, wears a long veil, and is accompanied

by the stars, which follow in her train.

THANATOS (MORS) AND HYPNUS (SOMNUS).

Thanatos (Death) and his twin-brother Hypnus (Sleep) were the children of

Nyx.

Their dwelling was in the realm of shades, and when they appear among

mortals, Thanatos is feared and hated as the enemy of mankind, whose hard

heart knows no pity, whilst his brother Hypnus is universally loved and

welcomed as their kindest and most beneficent friend.

But though the ancients regarded Thanatos as a gloomy and mournful

divinity, they did not represent him with any exterior repulsiveness. On

the contrary, he appears as a beautiful youth, who holds in his hand an

inverted {143} torch, emblematical of the light of life being extinguished,

whilst his disengaged arm is thrown lovingly round the shoulder of his

brother Hypnus.

Hypnus is sometimes depicted standing erect with closed eyes; at others he

is in a recumbent position beside his brother Thanatos, and usually bears a

poppy-stalk in his hand.

A most interesting description of the abode of Hypnus is given by Ovid in

his Metamorphoses. He tells us how the god of Sleep dwelt in a

mountain-cave near the realm of the Cimmerians, which the sun never pierced

with his rays. No sound disturbed the stillness, no song of birds, not a

branch moved, and no human voice broke the profound silence which reigned

everywhere. From the lowermost rocks of the cave issued the river Lethe,

and one might almost have supposed that its course was arrested, were it

not for the low, monotonous hum of the water, which invited slumber. The

entrance was partially hidden by numberless white and red poppies, which

Mother Night had gathered and planted there, and from the juice of which

she extracts drowsiness, which she scatters in liquid drops all over the

earth, as soon as the sun-god has sunk to rest. In the centre of the cave

stands a couch of blackest ebony, with a bed of down, over which is laid a

coverlet of sable hue. Here the god himself reposes, surrounded by

innumerable forms. These are idle dreams, more numerous than the sands of

the sea. Chief among them is Morpheus, that changeful god, who may assume

any shape or form he pleases. Nor can the god of Sleep resist his own

power; for though he may rouse himself for a while, he soon succumbs to the

drowsy influences which surround him.

MORPHEUS.

Morpheus, the son of Hypnus, was the god of Dreams.

He is always represented winged, and appears sometimes as a youth,

sometimes as an old man. In his hand he bears a cluster of poppies, and as

he steps with {144} noiseless footsteps over the earth, he gently scatters

the seeds of this sleep-producing plant over the eyes of weary mortals.

Homer describes the House of Dreams as having two gates: one, whence issue

all deceptive and flattering visions, being formed of ivory; the other,

through which proceed those dreams which are fulfilled, of horn.

THE GORGONS.

The Gorgons, Stheno, Euryale, and Medusa, were the three daughters of

Phorcys and Ceto, and were the personification of those benumbing, and, as

it were, petrifying sensations, which result from sudden and extreme fear.

They were frightful winged monsters, whose bodies were covered with scales;

hissing, wriggling snakes clustered round their heads instead of hair;

their hands were of brass; their teeth resembled the tusks of a wild boar;

and their whole aspect was so appalling, that they are said to have turned

into stone all who beheld them.

These terrible sisters were supposed to dwell in that remote and mysterious

region in the far West, beyond the sacred stream of Oceanus.

The Gorgons were the servants of Aides, who made use of them to terrify and

overawe those shades, doomed to be kept in a constant state of unrest as a

punishment for their misdeeds, whilst the Furies, on their part, scourged

them with their whips and tortured them incessantly.

The most celebrated of the three sisters was Medusa, who alone was mortal.

She was originally a golden-haired and very beautiful maiden, who, as a

priestess of Athene, was devoted to a life of celibacy; but, being wooed by

Poseidon, whom she loved in return, she forgot her vows, and became united

to him in marriage. For this offence she was punished by the goddess in a

most terrible manner. Each wavy lock of the beautiful hair which had so

charmed her husband, was changed into a {145} venomous snake; her once

gentle, love-inspiring eyes now became blood-shot, furious orbs, which

excited fear and disgust in the mind of the beholder; whilst her former

roseate hue and milk-white skin assumed a loathsome greenish tinge. Seeing

herself thus transformed into so repulsive an object, Medusa fled from her

home, never to return. Wandering about, abhorred, dreaded, and shunned by

all the world, she now developed into a character, worthy of her outward

appearance. In her despair she fled to Africa, where, as she passed

restlessly from place to place, infant snakes dropped from her hair, and

thus, according to the belief of the ancients, that country became the

hotbed of these venomous reptiles. With the curse of Athene upon her, she

turned into stone whomsoever she gazed upon, till at last, after a life of

nameless misery, deliverance came to her in the shape of death, at the

hands of Perseus.

It is well to observe that when the Gorgons are spoken of in the singular,

it is Medusa who is alluded to.

Medusa was the mother of Pegasus and Chrysaor, father of the three-headed,

winged giant Geryones, who was slain by Heracles.

GRAEAE.

The Graeae, who acted as servants to their sisters the Gorgons, were also

three in number; their names were Pephredo, Enyo, and Dino.

In their original conception they were merely personifications of kindly

and venerable old age, possessing all its benevolent attributes without its

natural infirmities. They were old and gray from their birth, and so they

ever remained. In later times, however, they came to be regarded as

misshapen females, decrepid, and hideously ugly, having only one eye, one

tooth, and one gray wig between them, which they lent to each other, when

one of them wished to appear before the world.

When Perseus entered upon his expedition to slay the Medusa, he repaired to

the abode of the Graeae, in the far {146} west, to inquire the way to the

Gorgons, and on their refusing to give any information, he deprived them of

their one eye, tooth, and wig, and did not restore them until he received

the necessary directions.

SPHINX.

The Sphinx was an ancient Egyptian divinity, who personified wisdom, and

the fertility of nature. She is represented as a lion-couchant, with the

head and bust of a woman, and wears a peculiar sort of hood, which

completely envelops her head, and falls down on either side of the face.

Transplanted into Greece, this sublime and mysterious Egyptian deity

degenerates into an insignificant, and yet malignant power, and though she

also deals in mysteries, they are, as we shall see, of a totally different

character, and altogether inimical to human life.

[Illustration]

The Sphinx is represented, according to Greek genealogy, as the offspring

of Typhon and Echidna.[48] Hera, being upon one occasion displeased with

the Thebans, sent them this awful monster, as a punishment for their

offences. Taking her seat on a rocky eminence near the city of Thebes,

commanding a pass which the Thebans were compelled to traverse in their

usual way of business, she propounded to all comers a riddle, and if they

failed to solve it, she tore them in pieces.

During the reign of King Creon, so many people had fallen a sacrifice to

this monster, that he determined to use every effort to rid the country of

so terrible a scourge. On consulting the oracle of Delphi, he was informed

that the only way to destroy the Sphinx was to solve one of her riddles,

when she would immediately precipitate herself from the rock on which she

was seated.

Creon, accordingly, made a public declaration to the effect, that whoever

could give the true interpretation of a riddle propounded by the monster,

should obtain the crown, and the hand of his sister Jocaste. Oedipus

offered {147} himself as a candidate, and proceeding to the spot where she

kept guard, received from her the following riddle for solution: "What

creature goes in the morning on four legs, at noon on two, and in the

evening on three?" Oedipus replied, that it must be man, who during his

infancy creeps on all fours, in his prime walks erect on two legs, and when

old age has enfeebled his powers, calls a staff to his assistance, and thus

has, as it were, three legs.

The Sphinx no sooner heard this reply, which was the correct solution of

her riddle, than she flung herself over the precipice, and perished in the

abyss below.

The Greek Sphinx may be recognized by having wings and by being of smaller

dimensions than the Egyptian Sphinx.

TYCHE (FORTUNA) AND ANANKE (NECESSITAS).

TYCHE (FORTUNA).

Tyche personified that peculiar combination of circumstances which we call

luck or fortune, and was considered to be the source of all unexpected

events in human life, whether good or evil. If a person succeeded in all he

undertook without possessing any special merit of his own, Tyche was

supposed to have smiled on his birth. If, on the other hand, undeserved

ill-luck followed him through life, and all his efforts resulted in

failure, it was ascribed to her adverse influence.

This goddess of Fortune is variously represented. Sometimes she is depicted

bearing in her hand two rudders, with one of which she steers the bark of

the fortunate, and with the other that of the unfortunate among mortals. In

later times she appears blindfolded, and stands on a ball or wheel,

indicative of the fickleness and ever-revolving {148} changes of fortune.

She frequently bears the sceptre and cornucopia[49] or horn of plenty, and

is usually winged. In her temple at Thebes, she is represented holding the

infant Plutus in her arms, to symbolize her power over riches and

prosperity.

Tyche was worshipped in various parts of Greece, but more particularly by

the Athenians, who believed in her special predilection for their city.

FORTUNA.

Tyche was worshipped in Rome under the name of Fortuna, and held a position

of much greater importance among the Romans than the Greeks.

In later times Fortuna is never represented either winged or standing on a

ball; she merely bears the cornucopia. It is evident, therefore, that she

had come to be regarded as the goddess of good luck only, who brings

blessings to man, and not, as with the Greeks, as the personification of

the fluctuations of fortune.

In addition to Fortuna, the Romans worshipped Felicitas as the giver of

positive good fortune.

ANANKE (NECESSITAS).

As Ananke, Tyche assumes quite another character, and becomes the

embodiment of those immutable laws of nature, by which certain causes

produce certain inevitable results.

In a statue of this divinity at Athens she was represented with hands of

bronze, and surrounded with nails and hammers. The hands of bronze probably

indicated the irresistible power of the inevitable, and the hammer and

chains the fetters which she forged for man.

Ananke was worshipped in Rome under the name of Necessitas.

{149}

KER.

In addition to the Moirae, who presided over the life of mortals, there was

another divinity, called Ker, appointed for each human being at the moment

of his birth. The Ker belonging to an individual was believed to develop

with his growth, either for good or evil; and when the ultimate fate of a

mortal was about to be decided, his Ker was weighed in the balance, and,

according to the preponderance of its worth or worthlessness, life or death

was awarded to the human being in question. It becomes evident, therefore,

that according to the belief of the early Greeks, each individual had it in

his power, to a certain extent, to shorten or prolong his own existence.

The Keres, who are frequently mentioned by Homer, were the goddesses who

delighted in the slaughter of the battle-field.

ATE.

Ate, the daughter of Zeus and Eris, was a divinity who delighted in evil.

Having instigated Hera to deprive Heracles of his birthright, her father

seized her by the hair of her head, and hurled her from Olympus, forbidding

her, under the most solemn imprecations, ever to return. Henceforth she

wandered among mankind, sowing dissension, working mischief, and luring men

to all actions inimical to their welfare and happiness. Hence, when a

reconciliation took place between friends who had quarrelled, Ate was

blamed as the original cause of disagreement.

MOMUS.

Momus, the son of Nyx, was the god of raillery and ridicule, who delighted

to criticise, with bitter sarcasm, the actions of gods and men, and

contrived to discover in all things some defect or blemish. Thus when

Prometheus created the first man, Momus considered his work incomplete

because there was no aperture in the breast through which his inmost

thoughts might be read. He {150} also found fault with a house built by

Athene because, being unprovided with the means of locomotion, it could

never be removed from an unhealthy locality. Aphrodite alone defied his

criticism, for, to his great chagrin, he could find no fault with her

perfect form.[50]

In what manner the ancients represented this god is unknown. In modern art

he is depicted like a king's jester, with a fool's cap and bells.

EROS (CUPID, AMOR) AND PSYCHE.

According to Hesiod's Theogony, Eros, the divine spirit of Love, sprang

forth from Chaos, while all was still in confusion, and by his beneficent

power reduced to order and harmony the shapeless, conflicting elements,

which, under his influence, began to assume distinct forms. This ancient

Eros is represented as a full-grown and very beautiful youth, crowned with

flowers, and leaning on a shepherd's crook.

In the course of time, this beautiful conception gradually faded away, and

though occasional mention still continues to be made of the Eros of Chaos,

he is replaced by the son of Aphrodite, the popular, mischief-loving little

god of Love, so familiar to us all.

In one of the myths concerning Eros, Aphrodite is described as complaining

to Themis, that her son, though so beautiful, did not appear to increase in

stature; whereupon Themis suggested that his small proportions were

probably attributable to the fact of his being always alone, and advised

his mother to let him have a companion. Aphrodite accordingly gave him, as

a playfellow, his younger brother Anteros (requited love), and soon had the

gratification of seeing the little Eros begin to grow and thrive; but,

curious to relate, this desirable result only continued as long as the

brothers remained together, for the moment they were separated, Eros shrank

once more to his original size.

{151}

By degrees the conception of Eros became multiplied and we hear of little

love-gods (Amors), who appear under the most charming and diversified

forms. These love-gods, who afforded to artists inexhaustible subjects for

the exercise of their imagination, are represented as being engaged in

various occupations, such as hunting, fishing, rowing, driving chariots,

and even busying themselves in mechanical labour.

[Illustration]

Perhaps no myth is more charming and interesting than that of Eros and

Psyche, which is as follows:--Psyche, the youngest of three princesses, was

so transcendently beautiful that Aphrodite herself became jealous of her,

and no mortal dared to aspire to the honour of her hand. As her sisters,

who were by no means equal to her in attractions, were married, and Psyche

still remained unwedded, her father consulted the oracle of Delphi, and, in

obedience to the divine response, caused her to be dressed as though for

the grave, and conducted to the edge of a yawning precipice. No sooner was

she alone than she felt herself lifted up, and wafted away by the gentle

west wind Zephyrus, who transported her to a verdant meadow, in the midst

of which stood a stately palace, surrounded by groves and fountains.

Here dwelt Eros, the god of Love, in whose arms Zephyrus deposited his

lovely burden. Eros, himself unseen, wooed her in the softest accents of

affection; but warned her, as she valued his love, not to endeavour to

behold his form. For some time Psyche was obedient to the injunction of her

immortal spouse, and made no effort to gratify her natural curiosity; but,

unfortunately, in the midst of her happiness she was seized with an

unconquerable longing for the society of her {152} sisters, and, in

accordance with her desire, they were conducted by Zephyrus to her

fairy-like abode. Filled with envy at the sight of her felicity, they

poisoned her mind against her husband, and telling her that her unseen

lover was a frightful monster, they gave her a sharp dagger, which they

persuaded her to use for the purpose of delivering herself from his power.

After the departure of her sisters, Psyche resolved to take the first

opportunity of following their malicious counsel. She accordingly rose in

the dead of night, and taking a lamp in one hand and a dagger in the other,

stealthily approached the couch where Eros was reposing, when, instead of

the frightful monster she had expected to see, the beauteous form of the

god of Love greeted her view. Overcome with surprise and admiration, Psyche

stooped down to gaze more closely on his lovely features, when, from the

lamp which she held in her trembling hand, there fell a drop of burning oil

upon the shoulder of the sleeping god, who instantly awoke, and seeing

Psyche standing over him with the instrument of death in her hand,

sorrowfully reproached her for her treacherous designs, and, spreading out

his wings, flew away.

In despair at having lost her lover, the unhappy Psyche endeavoured to put

an end to her existence by throwing herself into the nearest river; but

instead of closing over her, the waters bore her gently to the opposite

bank, where Pan (the god of shepherds) received her, and consoled her with

the hope of becoming eventually reconciled to her husband.

Meanwhile her wicked sisters, in expectation of meeting with the same good

fortune which had befallen Psyche, placed themselves on the edge of the

rock, but were both precipitated into the chasm below.

Psyche herself, filled with a restless yearning for her lost love, wandered

all over the world in search of him. At length she appealed to Aphrodite to

take compassion on her; but the goddess of Beauty, still jealous of her

charms, imposed upon her the hardest tasks, the accomplishment of which

often appeared impossible. In these {153} she was always assisted by

invisible, beneficent beings, sent to her by Eros, who still loved her, and

continued to watch over her welfare.

[Illustration]

Psyche had to undergo a long and severe penance before she became worthy to

regain the happiness, which she had so foolishly trifled away. At last

Aphrodite commanded her to descend into the under world, and obtain from

Persephone a box containing all the charms of beauty. Psyche's courage now

failed her, for she concluded that death must of necessity precede her

entrance into the realm of shades. About to abandon herself to despair, she

heard a voice which warned her of every danger to be avoided on her

perilous journey, and instructed her with regard to certain precautions to

be observed. These were as follows:--not to omit to provide herself with

the ferryman's toll for Charon, and the cake to pacify Cerberus, also to

refrain from taking any part in the banquets of Aides and Persephone, and,

above all things, to bring the box of beauty charms unopened to Aphrodite.

In conclusion, the voice assured her, that compliance with the above

conditions would insure for her a safe return to the realms of light. But,

alas, Psyche, who had implicitly followed all injunctions, could not

withstand the temptation of the last condition; and, hardly had she quitted

the lower world, when, unable to resist the curiosity which devoured her,

she raised the lid of the box with eager expectation. But, instead of the

wondrous charms of beauty which she expected to behold, there issued from

the casket a dense black vapour, which had the effect of throwing her into

a death-like sleep, out of which Eros, who had long hovered round her

unseen, at length awoke her with the point of one of his golden arrows. He

gently reproached her with this second proof of her curiosity and folly,

and then, having persuaded Aphrodite to be reconciled to his beloved, he

induced Zeus to admit her among the immortal gods.

Their reunion was celebrated amidst the rejoicings of all the Olympian

deities. The Graces shed perfume on {154} their path, the Hours sprinkled

roses over the sky, Apollo added the music of his lyre, and the Muses

united their voices in a glad chorus of delight.

This myth would appear to be an allegory, which signifies that the soul,

before it can be reunited to its original divine essence, must be purified

by the chastening sorrows and sufferings of its earthly career.[51]

Eros is represented as a lovely boy, with rounded limbs, and a merry,

roguish expression. He has golden wings, and a quiver slung over his

shoulder, which contained his magical and unerring arrows; in one hand he

bears his golden bow, and in the other a torch.

He is also frequently depicted riding on a lion, dolphin, or eagle, or

seated in a chariot drawn by stags or wild boars, undoubtedly emblematical

of the power of love as the subduer of all nature, even of the wild

animals.

In Rome, Eros was worshipped under the name of Amor or Cupid.

HYMEN.

Hymen or Hymenaeus, the son of Apollo and the muse Urania, was the god who

presided over marriage and nuptial solemnities, and was hence invoked at

all marriage festivities.

There is a myth concerning this divinity, which tells us that Hymen was a

beautiful youth of very poor parents, who fell in love with a wealthy

maiden, so far above him in rank, that he dared not cherish the hope of

ever becoming united to her. Still he missed no opportunity of seeing her,

and, upon one occasion, disguised himself as {155} a girl, and joined a

troop of maidens, who, in company with his beloved, were proceeding from

Athens to Eleusis, in order to attend a festival of Demeter. On their way

thither they were surprised by pirates, who carried them off to a desert

island, where the ruffians, after drinking deeply, fell into a heavy sleep.

Hymen, seizing the opportunity, slew them all, and then set sail for

Athens, where he found the parents of the maidens in the greatest distress

at their unaccountable disappearance. He comforted them with the assurance

that their children should be restored to them, provided they would promise

to give him in marriage the maiden he loved. The condition being gladly

complied with, he at once returned to the island, and brought back the

maidens in safety to Athens, whereupon he became united to the object of

his love; and their union proved so remarkably happy, that henceforth the

name of Hymen became synonymous with conjugal felicity.

IRIS (THE RAINBOW).

Iris, the daughter of Thaumas and Electra, personified the rainbow, and was

the special attendant and messenger of the queen of heaven, whose commands

she executed with singular tact, intelligence, and swiftness.

Most primitive nations have regarded the rainbow as a bridge of

communication between heaven and earth, and this is doubtless the reason

why Iris, who represented that beautiful phenomenon of nature, should have

been invested by the Greeks with the office of communicating between gods

and men.

Iris is usually represented seated behind the chariot of Hera, ready to do

the bidding of her royal mistress. She appears under the form of a slender

maiden of great beauty, robed in an airy fabric of variegated hues,

resembling mother-of-pearl; her sandals are bright as burnished silver, she

has golden wings, and wherever she appears, a radiance of light, and a

sweet odour, as of delicate spring flowers, pervades the air. {156}

[Illustration]

HEBE (JUVENTAS).

Hebe was the personification of eternal youth under its most attractive and

joyous aspect.

She was the daughter of Zeus and Hera, and though of such distinguished

rank, is nevertheless represented as cup-bearer to the gods; a forcible

exemplification of the old patriarchal custom, in accordance with which the

daughters of the house, even when of the highest lineage, personally

assisted in serving the guests.

Hebe is represented as a comely, modest maiden, small, of a beautifully

rounded contour, with nut-brown tresses and sparkling eyes. She is often

depicted pouring out nectar from an upraised vessel, or bearing in her hand

a shallow dish, supposed to contain ambrosia, the ever youth-renewing food

of the immortals.

In consequence of an act of awkwardness, which caused her to slip while

serving the gods, Hebe was deprived of her office, which was henceforth

delegated to Ganymedes, son of Tros.

Hebe afterwards became the bride of Heracles, when, after his apotheosis,

he was received among the immortals.

JUVENTAS.

Juventas was the Roman divinity identified with Hebe, whose attributes,

however, were regarded by the Romans as applying more particularly to the

imperishable vigour and immortal glory of the state.

In Rome, several temples were erected in honour of this goddess. {157}

GANYMEDES.

Ganymedes, the youngest son of Tros, king of Troy, was one day drawing

water from a well on Mount Ida, when he was observed by Zeus, who, struck

with his wonderful beauty, sent his eagle to transport him to Olympus,

where he was endowed with immortality, and appointed cup-bearer to the

gods.

Ganymedes is represented as a youth of exquisite beauty, with short golden

locks, delicately chiselled features, beaming blue eyes, and pouting lips.

THE MUSES.

Of all the Olympic deities, none occupy a more distinguished position than

the Muses, the nine beautiful daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne.

In their original signification, they presided merely over music, song, and

dance; but with the progress of civilization the arts and sciences claimed

their special presiding divinities, and we see these graceful creations, in

later times, sharing among them various functions, such as poetry,

astronomy, &c.

The Muses were honoured alike by mortals and immortals. In Olympus, where

Apollo acted as their leader, no banquet or festivity was considered

complete without their joy-inspiring presence, and on earth no social

gathering was celebrated without libations being poured out to them; nor

was any task involving intellectual effort ever undertaken, without

earnestly supplicating their assistance. They endowed their chosen

favourites with knowledge, wisdom, and understanding; they bestowed upon

the orator the gift of eloquence, inspired the poet with his noblest

thoughts, and the musician with his sweetest harmonies.

Like so many of the Greek divinities, however, the refined conception of

the Muses is somewhat marred by the acerbity with which they punished any

effort on the part {158} of mortals to rival them in their divine powers.

An instance of this is seen in the case of Thamyris, a Thracian bard, who

presumed to invite them to a trial of skill in music. Having vanquished

him, they not only afflicted him with blindness, but deprived him also of

the power of song.

Another example of the manner in which the gods punished presumption and

vanity is seen in the story of the daughters of King Pierus. Proud of the

perfection to which they had brought their skill in music, they presumed to

challenge the Muses themselves in the art over which they specially

presided. The contest took place on Mount Helicon, and it is said that when

the mortal maidens commenced their song, the sky became dark and misty,

whereas when the Muses raised their heavenly voices, all nature seemed to

rejoice, and Mount Helicon itself moved with exultation. The Pierides were

signally defeated, and were transformed by the Muses into singing birds, as

a punishment for having dared to challenge comparison with the immortals.

Undeterred by the above example, the Sirens also entered into a similar

contest. The songs of the Muses were loyal and true, whilst those of the

Sirens were the false and deceptive strains with which so many unfortunate

mariners had been lured to their death. The Sirens were defeated by the

Muses, and as a mark of humiliation, were deprived of the feathers with

which their bodies were adorned.

The oldest seat of the worship of the Muses was Pieria in Thrace, where

they were supposed to have first seen the light of day. Pieria is a

district on one of the sloping declivities of Mount Olympus, whence a

number of rivulets, as they flow towards the plains beneath, produce those

sweet, soothing sounds, which may possibly have suggested this spot as a

fitting home for the presiding divinities of song.

They dwelt on the summits of Mounts Helicon, Parnassus, and Pindus, and

loved to haunt the springs and fountains which gushed forth amidst these

rocky {159} heights, all of which were sacred to them and to poetic

inspiration. Aganippe and Hippocrene on Mount Helicon, and the Castalian

spring on Mount Parnassus, were sacred to the Muses. The latter flowed

between two lofty rocks above the city of Delphi, and in ancient times its

waters were introduced into a square stone basin, where they were retained

for the use of the Pythia and the priests of Apollo.

[Illustration: CALLIOPE.]

The libations to these divinities consisted of water, milk, and honey, but

never of wine.

Their names and functions are as follows:--

CALLIOPE, the most honoured of the Muses, presided over heroic song and

epic poetry, and is represented with a pencil in her hand, and a slate upon

her knee.

CLIO, the muse of History, holds in her hand a roll of parchment, and wears

a wreath of laurel.

MELPOMENE, the muse of Tragedy, bears a tragic mask.

THALIA, the muse of Comedy, carries in her right hand a shepherd's crook,

and has a comic mask beside her.

POLYHYMNIA, the muse of Sacred Hymns, is crowned with a wreath of laurel.

She is always represented in a thoughtful attitude, and entirely enveloped

in rich folds of drapery.

TERPSICHORE, the muse of Dance and Roundelay, is represented in the act of

playing on a seven-stringed lyre.

URANIA, the muse of Astronomy, stands erect, and bears in her left hand a

celestial globe.

EUTERPE, the muse of Harmony, is represented bearing a musical instrument,

usually a flute.

ERATO, the muse of Love and hymeneal songs, wears a wreath of laurel, and

is striking the chords of a lyre. {160}

[Illustration: CLIO.]

[Illustration: TERPSICHORE.]

[Illustration: EUTERPE.]

[Illustration: ERATO.]

With regard to the origin of the Muses, it is said that they were created

by Zeus in answer to a request on the part of the victorious deities, after

the war with the {161} Titans, that some special divinities should be

called into existence, in order to commemorate in song the glorious deeds

of the Olympian gods.

[Illustration: URANIA.]

[Illustration: MELPOMENE.]

[Illustration: THALIA.]

[Illustration: POLYHYMNIA.]

{162}

PEGASUS.

Pegasus was a beautiful winged horse who sprang from the body of Medusa

when she was slain by the hero Perseus, the son of Zeus and Danae.

Spreading out his wings he immediately flew to the top of Mount Olympus,

where he was received with delight and admiration by all the immortals. A

place in his palace was assigned to him by Zeus, who employed him to carry

his thunder and lightning. Pegasus permitted none but the gods to mount

him, except in the case of Bellerophon, whom, at the command of Athene, he

carried aloft, in order that he might slay the Chimaera with his arrows.

The later poets represent Pegasus as being at the service of the Muses, and

for this reason he is more celebrated in modern times than in antiquity. He

would appear to represent that poetical inspiration, which tends to develop

man's higher nature, and causes the mind to soar heavenwards. The only

mention by the ancients of Pegasus in connection with the Muses, is the

story of his having produced with his hoofs, the famous fountain

Hippocrene.

It is said that during their contest with the Pierides, the Muses played

and sang on the summit of Mount Helicon with such extraordinary power and

sweetness, that heaven and earth stood still to listen, whilst the mountain

raised itself in joyous ecstasy towards the abode of the celestial gods.

Poseidon, seeing his special function thus interfered with, sent Pegasus to

check the boldness of the mountain, in daring to move without his

permission. When Pegasus reached the summit, he stamped the ground with his

hoofs, and out gushed the waters of Hippocrene, afterwards so renowned as

the sacred fount, whence the Muses quaffed their richest draughts of

inspiration.

THE HESPERIDES.

The Hesperides, the daughters of Atlas, dwelt in an island in the far west,

whence they derived their name. {163}

They were appointed by Hera to act as guardians to a tree bearing golden

apples, which had been presented to her by Gaea on the occasion of her

marriage with Zeus.

It is said that the Hesperides, being unable to withstand the temptation of

tasting the golden fruit confided to their care, were deprived of their

office, which was henceforth delegated to the terrible dragon Ladon, who

now became the ever-watchful sentinel of these precious treasures.

The names of the Hesperides were Aegle, Arethusa, and Hesperia.

CHARITES (GRATIAE) GRACES.

All those gentler attributes which beautify and refine human existence were

personified by the Greeks under the form of three lovely sisters,

Euphrosyne, Aglaia, and Thalia, the daughters of Zeus and Eurynome (or,

according to later writers, of Dionysus and Aphrodite).

They are represented as beautiful, slender maidens in the full bloom of

youth, with hands and arms lovingly intertwined, and are either undraped,

or wear a fleecy, transparent garment of an ethereal fabric.

They portray every gentle emotion of the heart, which vents itself in

friendship and benevolence, and were believed to preside over those

qualities which constitute grace, modesty, unconscious beauty, gentleness,

kindliness, innocent joy, purity of mind and body, and eternal youth.

They not only possessed the most perfect beauty themselves, but also

conferred this gift upon others. All the enjoyments of life were enhanced

by their presence, and were deemed incomplete without them; and wherever

joy or pleasure, grace and gaiety reigned, there they were supposed to be

present.

Temples and altars were everywhere erected in their honour, and people of

all ages and of every rank in life entreated their favour. Incense was

burnt daily upon their altars, and at every banquet they were invoked,

{164} and a libation poured out to them, as they not only heightened all

enjoyment, but also by their refining influence moderated the exciting

effects of wine.

Music, eloquence, poetry, and art, though the direct work of the Muses,

received at the hands of the Graces an additional touch of refinement and

beauty; for which reason they are always regarded as the friends of the

Muses, with whom they lived on Mount Olympus.

Their special function was to act, in conjunction with the Seasons, as

attendants upon Aphrodite, whom they adorned with wreaths of flowers, and

she emerges from their hands like the Queen of Spring, perfumed with the

odour of roses and violets, and all sweet-scented blossoms.

The Graces are frequently seen in attendance on other divinities; thus they

carry music for Apollo, myrtles for Aphrodite, &c., and frequently

accompany the Muses, Eros, or Dionysus.

HORAE (SEASONS).

Closely allied to the Graces were the Horae, or Seasons, who were also

represented as three beautiful maidens, daughters of Zeus and Themis. Their

names were Eunomia, Dice, and Irene.

It may appear strange that these divinities, presiding over the seasons,

should be but three in number, but this is quite in accordance with the

notions of the ancient Greeks, who only recognized spring, summer, and

autumn as seasons; nature being supposed to be wrapt in death or slumber,

during that cheerless and unproductive portion of the year which we call

winter. In some parts of Greece there were but two Horae, Thallo, goddess of

the bloom, and Carpo, of the corn and fruit-bearing season.

The Horae are always regarded as friendly towards mankind, and totally

devoid of guile or subtlety; they are represented as joyous, but gentle

maidens, crowned with flowers, and holding each other by the hand in a

round dance. When they are depicted separately as personifications of the

different seasons, the Hora {165} representing spring appears laden with

flowers, that of summer bears a sheaf of corn, whilst the personification

of autumn has her hands filled with clusters of grapes and other fruits.

They also appear in company with the Graces in the train of Aphrodite, and

are seen with Apollo and the Muses.

They are inseparably connected with all that is good and beautiful in

nature, and as the regular alternation of the seasons, like all her other

operations, demands the most perfect order and regularity, the Horae, being

the daughters of Themis, came to be regarded as the representatives of

order, and the just administration of human affairs in civilized

communities. Each of these graceful maidens took upon herself a separate

function: Eunomia presided more especially over state life, Dice guarded

the interests of individuals, whilst Irene, the gayest and brightest of the

three sisters, was the light-hearted companion of Dionysus.

The Horae were also the deities of the fast-fleeting hours, and thus

presided over the smaller, as well as the larger divisions of time. In this

capacity they assist every morning in yoking the celestial horses to the

glorious chariot of the sun, which they again help to unyoke when he sinks

to rest.

In their original conception they were personifications of the clouds, and

are described as opening and closing the gates of heaven, and causing

fruits and flowers to spring forth, when they pour down upon them their

refreshing and life-giving streams.

THE NYMPHS.

The graceful beings called the Nymphs were the presiding deities of the

woods, grottoes, streams, meadows, &c.

These divinities were supposed to be beautiful maidens of fairy-like form,

and robed in more or less shadowy garments. They were held in the greatest

veneration, though, being minor divinities, they had no temples {166}

dedicated to them, but were worshipped in caves or grottoes, with libations

of milk, honey, oil, &c.

They may be divided into three distinct classes, viz., water, mountain, and

tree or wood nymphs.

WATER NYMPHS.

OCEANIDES, NEREIDES, AND NAIADES.

The worship of water-deities is common to most primitive nations. The

streams, springs, and fountains of a country bear the same relation to it

which the blood, coursing through the numberless arteries of a human being,

bears to the body; both represent the living, moving, life-awakening

element, without which existence would be impossible. Hence we find among

most nations a deep feeling of attachment to the streams and waters of

their native land, the remembrance of which, when absent in foreign climes,

is always treasured with peculiar fondness. Thus among the early Greeks,

each tribe came to regard the rivers and springs of its individual state as

beneficent powers, which brought blessing and prosperity to the country. It

is probable also that the charm which ever accompanies the sound of running

water exercised its power over their imagination. They heard with delight

the gentle whisper of the fountain, lulling the senses with its low,

rippling tones; the soft purling of the brook as it rushes over the

pebbles, or the mighty voice of the waterfall as it dashes on in its

headlong course; and the beings which they pictured to themselves as

presiding over all these charming sights and sounds of nature,

corresponded, in their graceful appearance, with the scenes with which they

were associated.

OCEANIDES.

The OCEANIDES, or Ocean Nymphs, were the daughters of Oceanus and Tethys,

and, like most sea divinities, were endowed with the gift of prophecy.

They are personifications of those delicate vapour-like {167} exhalations,

which, in warm climates, are emitted from the surface of the sea, more

especially at sunset, and are impelled forwards by the evening breeze. They

are accordingly represented as misty, shadowy beings, with graceful swaying

forms, and robed in pale blue, gauze-like fabrics.

THE NEREIDES.

The NEREIDES were the daughters of Nereus and Doris, and were nymphs of the

Mediterranean Sea.

They are similar in appearance to the Oceanides, but their beauty is of a

less shadowy order, and is more like that of mortals. They wear a flowing,

pale green robe; their liquid eyes resemble, in their clear depths, the

lucid waters of the sea they inhabit; their hair floats carelessly over

their shoulders, and assumes the greenish tint of the water itself, which,

far from deteriorating from their beauty, greatly adds to its effect. The

Nereides either accompany the chariot of the mighty ruler of the sea, or

follow in his train.

We are told by the poets that the lonely mariner watches the Nereides with

silent awe and wondering delight, as they rise from their grotto-palaces in

the deep, and dance, in joyful groups, over the sleeping waves. Some, with

arms entwined, follow with their movements the melodies which seem to hover

over the sea, whilst others scatter liquid gems around, these being

emblematical of the phosphorescent light, so frequently observed at night

by the traveller in southern waters.

The best known of the Nereides were Thetis, the wife of Peleus, Amphitrite,

the spouse of Poseidon, and Galatea, the beloved of Acis.

THE NAIADES.

The NAIADES were the nymphs of fresh-water springs, lakes, brooks, rivers,

&c.

As the trees, plants, and flowers owed their nourishment to their genial,

fostering care, these divinities were {168} regarded by the Greeks as

special benefactors to mankind. Like all the nymphs, they possessed the

gift of prophecy, for which reason many of the springs and fountains over

which they presided were believed to inspire mortals who drank of their

waters with the power of foretelling future events. The Naiades are

intimately connected in idea with those flowers which are called after them

Nymphae, or water-lilies, whose broad, green leaves and yellow cups float

upon the surface of the water, as though proudly conscious of their own

grace and beauty.

We often hear of the Naiades forming alliances with mortals, and also of

their being wooed by the sylvan deities of the woods and dales.

DRYADES, OR TREE NYMPHS.

The tree nymphs partook of the distinguishing characteristics of the

particular tree to whose life they were wedded, and were known collectively

by the name of the Dryades.

The HAMADRYADES, or oak nymphs, represent in their peculiar individuality

the quiet, self-reliant power which appears to belong essentially to the

grand and lordly king of the forest.

The BIRCH NYMPH is a melancholy maiden with floating hair, resembling the

branches of the pale and fragile-looking tree which she inhabits.

The BEECH NYMPH is strong and sturdy, full of life and joyousness, and

appears to give promise of faithful love and undisturbed repose, whilst her

rosy cheeks, deep brown eyes, and graceful form bespeak health, vigour, and

vitality.

The nymph of the LINDEN TREE is represented as a little coy maiden, whose

short silver-gray dress reaches a little below the knee, and displays to

advantage her delicately formed limbs. The sweet face, which is partly

averted, reveals a pair of large blue eyes, which appear to look at you

with wondering surprise and shy mistrust; {169} her pale, golden hair is

bound by the faintest streak of rose-coloured ribbon.

The tree nymph, being wedded to the life of the tree she inhabited, ceased

to exist when it was either felled, or so injured as to wither away and

die.

NYMPHS OF THE VALLEYS AND MOUNTAINS.

NAPAEAE AND OREADES.

The Napaeae were the kind and gentle nymphs of the valleys and glens who

appear in the train of Artemis. They are represented as lovely maidens with

short tunics, which, reaching only to the knee, do not impede their swift

and graceful movements in the exercise of the chase. Their pale brown

tresses are fastened in a knot at the back of the head, whence a few stray

curls escape over their shoulders. The Napaeae are shy as the fawns, and

quite as frolicsome.

The OREADES, or mountain nymphs, who are the principal and constant

companions of Artemis, are tall, graceful maidens, attired as huntresses.

They are ardent followers of the chase, and spare neither the gentle deer

nor the timid hare, nor indeed any animal they meet with in their rapid

course. Wherever their wild hunt goes the shy Napaeae are represented as

hiding behind the leaves, whilst their favourites, the fawns, kneel

tremblingly beside them, looking up beseechingly for protection from the

wild huntresses; and even the bold Satyrs dart away at their approach, and

seek safety in flight.

There is a myth connected with one of these mountain nymphs, the

unfortunate Echo. She became enamoured of a beautiful youth named

Narcissus, son of the river-god Cephissus, who, however, failed to return

her love, which so grieved her that she gradually pined away, becoming a

mere shadow of her former self, till, at length, nothing remained of her

except her voice, which henceforth gave back, with unerring fidelity, every

sound that was uttered in the hills and dales. Narcissus himself {170} also

met with an unhappy fate, for Aphrodite punished him by causing him to fall

in love with his own image, which he beheld in a neighbouring fountain,

whereupon, consumed with unrequited love, he wasted away, and was changed

into the flower which bears his name.

The LIMONIADES, or meadow nymphs, resemble the Naiades, and are usually

represented dancing hand in hand in a circle.

The HYADES, who in appearance are somewhat similar to the Oceanides, are

cloudy divinities, and, from the fact of their being invariably accompanied

by rain, are represented as incessantly weeping.

The MELIADES were the nymphs who presided over fruit-trees.

Before concluding this subject, attention should be drawn to the fact that,

in more modern times, this beautiful idea of animating all nature in detail

reappears under the various local traditions extant in different countries.

Thus do the Oceanides and Nereides live again in the mermaids, whose

existence is still believed in by mariners, whilst the flower and meadow

nymphs assume the shape of those tiny elves and fairies, who were formerly

believed to hold their midnight revels in every wood and on every common;

indeed, even at the present day, the Irish peasantry, especially in the

west, firmly believe in the existence of the fairies, or "good people," as

they are called.

THE WINDS.

According to the oldest accounts, AEolus was a king of the AEolian Islands,

to whom Zeus gave the command of the winds, which he kept shut up in a deep

cave, and which he freed at his pleasure, or at the command of the gods.

In later times the above belief underwent a change, and the winds came to

be regarded as distinct divinities, whose aspect accorded with the

respective winds with which they were identified. They were depicted as

{171} winged youths in full vigour in the act of flying through the air.

The principal winds were: Boreas (the north wind), Eurus (the east wind),

Zephyrus (the west wind), and Notus (the south wind), who were said to be

the children of Eos and Astraeus.

There are no myths of interest connected with these divinities. Zephyrus

was united to Chloris (Flora), the goddess of flowers. Of Boreas it is

related that while flying over the river Ilissus, he beheld on the banks

Oreithyia, the charming daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens, whom he

carried off to his native Thrace, and there made her his bride. Boreas and

Oreithyia were the parents of Zetes and Calais, afterwards famous in the

expedition of the Argonauts.

There was an altar erected at Athens in honour of Boreas, in commemoration

of his having destroyed the Persian fleet sent to attack the Greeks.

On the Acropolis at Athens there was a celebrated octagonal temple, built

by Pericles, which was dedicated to the winds, and on its sides were their

various representations. The ruins of this temple are still to be seen.

PAN (FAUNUS).

[Illustration]

Pan was the god of fertility, and the special patron of shepherds and

huntsmen; he presided over all rural occupations, was chief of the Satyrs,

and head of all rural divinities.

According to the common belief, he was the son of Hermes and a wood nymph,

and came into the world with horns sprouting from his forehead, a goat's

beard and a crooked nose, pointed ears, and the tail and feet of a goat,

and presented altogether so repulsive {172} an appearance that, at the

sight of him, his mother fled in dismay.

Hermes, however, took up his curious little offspring, wrapt him in a hare

skin, and carried him in his arms to Olympus. The grotesque form and merry

antics of the little stranger made him a great favourite with all the

immortals, especially Dionysus; and they bestowed upon him the name of Pan

(all), because he had delighted them _all_.

His favourite haunts were grottoes, and his delight was to wander in

uncontrolled freedom over rocks and mountains, following his various

pursuits, ever cheerful, and usually very noisy. He was a great lover of

music, singing, dancing, and all pursuits which enhance the pleasures of

life; and hence, in spite of his repulsive appearance, we see him

surrounded with nymphs of the forests and dales, who love to dance round

him to the cheerful music of his pipe, the syrinx. The myth concerning the

origin of Pan's pipe is as follows:--Pan became enamoured of a beautiful

nymph, called Syrinx, who, appalled at his terrible appearance, fled from

the pertinacious attentions of her unwelcome suitor. He pursued her to the

banks of the river Ladon, when, seeing his near approach, and feeling

escape impossible, she called on the gods for assistance, who, in answer to

her prayer, transformed her into a reed, just as Pan was about to seize

her. Whilst the love-sick Pan was sighing and lamenting his unfortunate

fate, the winds gently swayed the reeds, and produced a murmuring sound as

of one complaining. Charmed with the soothing tones, he endeavoured to

reproduce them himself, and after cutting seven of the reeds of unequal

length, he joined them together, and succeeded in producing the pipe, which

he called the syrinx, in memory of his lost love.

Pan was regarded by shepherds as their most valiant protector, who defended

their flocks from the attacks of wolves. The shepherds of these early

times, having no penfolds, were in the habit of gathering together their

flocks in mountain caves, to protect them against the {173} inclemency of

the weather, and also to secure them at night against the attacks of wild

animals; these caves, therefore, which were very numerous in the mountain

districts of Arcadia, Boeotia, &c., were all consecrated to Pan.

As it is customary in all tropical climates to repose during the heat of

the day, Pan is represented as greatly enjoying his afternoon sleep in the

cool shelter of a tree or cave, and also as being highly displeased at any

sound which disturbed his slumbers, for which reason the shepherds were

always particularly careful to keep unbroken silence during these hours,

whilst they themselves indulged in a quiet siesta.

Pan was equally beloved by huntsmen, being himself a great lover of the

woods, which afforded to his cheerful and active disposition full scope,

and in which he loved to range at will. He was regarded as the patron of

the chase, and the rural sportsmen, returning from an unsuccessful day's

sport, beat, in token of their displeasure, the wooden image of Pan, which

always occupied a prominent place in their dwellings.

All sudden and unaccountable sounds which startle travellers in lonely

spots, were attributed to Pan, who possessed a frightful and most

discordant voice; hence the term _pan_ic terror, to indicate sudden fear.

The Athenians ascribed their victory at Marathon to the alarm which he

created among the Persians by his terrible voice.

Pan was gifted with the power of prophecy, which he is said to have

imparted to Apollo, and he possessed a well-known and very ancient oracle

in Arcadia, in which state he was more especially worshipped.

The artists of later times have somewhat toned down the original very

unattractive conception of Pan, as above described, and merely represent

him as a young man, hardened by the exposure to all weathers which a rural

life involves, and bearing in his hand the shepherd's crook and

syrinx--these being his usual attributes--whilst small horns project from

his forehead. He is either undraped, or wears merely the light cloak called

the chlamys.

The usual offerings to Pan were milk and honey in {174} shepherds' bowls.

Cows, lambs, and rams were also sacrificed to him.

After the introduction of Pan into the worship of Dionysus, we hear of a

number of little Pans (Panisci), who are sometimes confounded with the

Satyrs.

FAUNUS.

The Romans had an old Italian divinity called Faunus, who, as the god of

shepherds, was identified with the Greek Pan, and represented in a similar

manner.

Faunus is frequently called Inuus or the fertilizer, and Lupercus or the

one who wards off wolves. Like Pan, he possessed the gift of prophecy, and

was the presiding spirit of the woods and fields; he also shared with his

Greek prototype the faculty of alarming travellers in solitary places. Bad

dreams and evil apparitions were attributed to Faunus, and he was believed

to enter houses stealthily at night for this purpose.

Fauna was the wife of Faunus, and participated in his functions.

THE SATYRS.

[Illustration]

The Satyrs were a race of woodland spirits, who evidently personified the

free, wild, and untrammelled life of the forest. Their appearance was both

grotesque and repulsive; they had flat broad noses, pointed ears, and

little horns sprouting from their foreheads, a rough shaggy skin, and small

goat's tails. They led a life of pleasure and self-indulgence, followed the

chase, revelled in every description of wild music and dancing, were

terrible wine-bibbers, and addicted to the deep slumbers which follow heavy

potations. They were no less dreaded by mortals than by the gentle woodland

nymphs, who always avoided their coarse rough sports.

The Satyrs were conspicuous figures in the train of Dionysus, and, as we

have seen, Silenus their chief was tutor to the wine god. The older Satyrs

were called Silens, and are represented in antique sculpture, as more

nearly approaching the human form.

{175}

In addition to the ordinary Satyrs, artists delighted in depicting little

Satyrs, young imps, frolicking about the woods in a marvellous variety of

droll attitudes. These little fellows greatly resemble their friends and

companions, the Panisci.

In rural districts it was customary for the shepherds and peasants who

attended the festivals of Dionysus, to dress themselves in the skins of

goats and other animals, and, under this disguise, they permitted

themselves all kinds of playful tricks and excesses, to which circumstance

the conception of the Satyrs is by some authorities attributed.

In Rome the old Italian wood-divinities, the FAUNS, who had goats' feet and

all other characteristics of the Satyrs greatly exaggerated, were

identified with them.

PRIAPUS.

Priapus, the son of Dionysus and Aphrodite, was regarded as the god of

fruitfulness, the protector of flocks, sheep, goats, bees, the fruit of the

vine, and all garden produce.

His statues, which were set up in gardens and vineyards, acted not only as

objects of worship, but also as scarecrows, the appearance of this god

being especially repulsive and unsightly. These statues were formed of wood

or stone, and from the hips downwards were merely rude columns. They

represent him as having a red and very ugly face; he bears in his hand a

pruning knife, and his head is crowned with a wreath of vine and laurel. He

usually carries fruit in his garments or a cornucopia in his hand, always,

however, retaining his singularly revolting aspect. It is said that Hera,

wishing {176} to punish Aphrodite, sent her this misshapen and unsightly

son, and that when he was born, his mother was so horrified at the sight of

him, that she ordered him to be exposed on the mountains, where he was

found by some shepherds, who, taking pity on him, saved his life.

This divinity was chiefly worshipped at Lampsacus, his birthplace. Asses

were sacrificed to him, and he received the first-fruits of the fields and

gardens, with a libation of milk and honey.

The worship of Priapus was introduced into Rome at the same time as that of

Aphrodite, and was identified with a native Italian divinity named Mutunus.

ASCLEPIAS (AESCULAPIUS).

Asclepias, the god of the healing art, was the son of Apollo and the nymph

Coronis. He was educated by the noble Centaur Chiron, who instructed him in

all knowledge, but more especially in that of the properties of herbs.

Asclepias searched out the hidden powers of plants, and discovered cures

for the various diseases which afflict the human body. He brought his art

to such perfection, that he not only succeeded in warding off death, but

also restored the dead to life. It was popularly believed that he was

materially assisted in his wonderful cures by the blood of the Medusa,

given to him by Pallas-Athene.

[Illustration]

It is well to observe that the shrines of this divinity, which were usually

built in healthy places, on hills outside the town, or near wells which

were believed to have healing powers, offered at the same time means of

cure for the sick and suffering, thus combining religious with sanitary

influences. It was the custom for the sufferer to sleep in the temple,

when, if he had been earnest in his devotions, Asclepias appeared to him in

a dream, and revealed the means to be employed for the cure of his malady.

On the walls of these temples were hung tablets, inscribed by the different

pilgrims with the particulars of their maladies, the remedies practised,

and the cures {177} worked by the god:--a custom undoubtedly productive of

most beneficial results.

Groves, temples, and altars were dedicated to Asclepias in many parts of

Greece, but Epidaurus, the chief seat of his worship,--where, indeed, it is

said to have originated,--contained his principal temple, which served at

the same time as a hospital.

The statue of Asclepias in the temple at Epidaurus was formed of ivory and

gold, and represented him as an old man with a full beard, leaning on a

staff round which a serpent is climbing. The serpent was the distinguishing

symbol of this divinity, partly because these reptiles were greatly used by

the ancients in the cure of diseases, and partly also because all the

prudence and wisdom of the serpent were deemed indispensable to the

judicious physician.

His usual attributes are a staff, a bowl, a bunch of herbs, a pineapple, a

dog, and a serpent.

His children inherited, for the most part, the distinguished talents of

their father. Two of his sons, Machaon and Podalirius, accompanied

Agamemnon to the Trojan war, in which expedition they became renowned, not

only as military heroes, but also as skilful physicians.

Their sisters, HYGEIA (health), and PANACEA (all-healing), had temples

dedicated to them, and received divine honours. The function of Hygeia was

to maintain the health of the community, which great blessing was supposed

to be brought by her as a direct and beneficent gift from the gods.

AESCULAPIUS.

The worship of AEsculapius was introduced into Rome from Epidaurus, whence

the statue of the god of healing {178} was brought at the time of a great

pestilence. Grateful for their deliverance from this plague, the Romans

erected a temple in his honour, on an island near the mouth of the Tiber.

* * * * *

ROMAN DIVINITIES.

JANUS.

From the earliest ages Janus was regarded by the Romans with the utmost

affection and veneration, as a divinity who ranked only second to Jupiter

himself, and through whom all prayers and petitions were transmitted to the

other gods.

He was believed to preside over the beginnings of all things, hence it was

he who inaugurated the years, months, and seasons, and in course of time

came to be considered as specially protecting the beginnings of all human

enterprises. The great importance which the Romans attached to an

auspicious commencement, as contributing to the ultimate success of an

enterprise, accounts for the high estimation in which Janus was held as the

god of beginnings.

This divinity would appear to have been the ancient sun-god of the Italian

tribes, in which capacity he opens and closes the gates of heaven every

morning and evening. Hence he was regarded as the door-keeper of heaven,

and also as the presiding deity over all gates, entrances, &c., on earth.

The fact of his being the god of city gates, which were called Jani after

him, is ascribed, however, to the following myth:--After the abduction of

their women by the Romans, the Sabines, in revenge, invaded the Roman

state, and were already about to enter the gates of the city, when suddenly

a hot sulphur spring, which was believed to have been sent by Janus for

their special preservation, gushed forth from the earth, and arrested the

progress of the enemy.

{179}

In his character as guardian of gates and doors, he was also regarded as a

protecting deity of the home, for which reason little shrines were erected

to him over the doors of houses, which contained an image of the god,

having two faces.

Janus possessed no temples in the ordinary acceptation of the word, but all

the gates of cities were dedicated to him. Close to the Forum of Rome stood

the so-called temple of Janus, which, however, was merely an arched

passage, closed by massive gates. This temple was open only in time of war,

as it was supposed that the god had then taken his departure with the Roman

army, over whose welfare he personally presided. It is worthy of notice, as

an evidence of the many wars in which the Romans were engaged, that the

gates of this sanctuary were only closed three times during 700 years.

As the god who ushers in the new year, the first month was called after

him, and on the 1st of January his most important festival was celebrated,

on which occasion all entrances of public and private buildings were

decorated with laurel branches and garlands of flowers.

His sacrifices, consisting of cakes, wine, and barley, were offered to him

at the beginning of every month; and before sacrificing to the other gods

his name was always invoked, and a libation poured out to him.

Janus is usually represented with two faces; in his special function as

door-keeper of heaven he stands erect, bearing a key in one hand, and a rod

or sceptre in the other.

It is supposed that Janus was the most ancient king of Italy, who, during

his life, governed his subjects with such wisdom and moderation that, in

gratitude for the benefits conferred upon them, his people deified him

after death and placed him in the foremost rank among their divinities. We

have already seen in the history of Cronus that Saturn, who was identified

with the Greek Cronus (god of time), was the friend and colleague of Janus.

Anxious to prove his gratitude to his benefactor, Cronus endowed him with

the knowledge of past and future {180} events, which enabled him to adopt

the wisest measures for the welfare of his subjects, and it is on this

account that Janus is represented with two faces looking in opposite

directions, the one to the past, the other to the future.

FLORA.

Flora was the goddess of flowers, and was regarded as a beneficent power,

who watched over and protected the early blossoms.

She was held in the highest estimation by the Romans, and a festival,

called the Floralia, was celebrated in her honour from the 28th of April to

the 1st of May. This festival was a season of universal merriment, in which

flowers were used profusely in adorning houses, streets, &c., and were worn

by young girls in their hair.

Flora, who typified the season of Spring, is generally represented as a

lovely maiden, garlanded with flowers.

ROBIGUS.

In opposition to Flora we find an antagonistic divinity, called Robigus, a

worker of evil, who delighted in the destruction of the tender herbs by

mildew, and whose wrath could only be averted by prayers and sacrifices,

when he was invoked under the title of Averuncus, or the Avertor.

The festival of Robigus (the Robigalia) was celebrated on the 25th of

April.

POMONA.

Pomona was the goddess of orchards and fruit-trees, who, according to Ovid,

cares not for woods or streams, but loves her gardens and the boughs that

bear the thriving fruit.

Pomona, who typifies Autumn, is represented as a lovely maiden, laden with

branches of fruit-trees.

{181}

VERTUMNUS.

Vertumnus was the god of garden and field produce. He personifies the

change of seasons, and that process of transformation in nature by means of

which the leaf-buds become developed into blossoms, and the blossoms into

fruit.

The change of seasons is symbolized in a myth which represents Vertumnus as

metamorphosing himself into a variety of different forms in order to gain

the affection of Pomona, who so loved her vocation that she abjured all

thoughts of marriage. He first appears to her as a ploughman, typifying

Spring; then as a reaper, to represent Summer; afterwards as a

vine-gatherer, to indicate Autumn; and finally as a gray-haired old woman,

symbolical of the snows of Winter; but it was not until he assumed his true

form, that of a beautiful youth, that he succeeded in his suit.

Vertumnus is generally represented crowned with wheat-sheaves, and bearing

in his hand a cornucopia.

PALES.

Pales, a very ancient Italian divinity, is represented sometimes as a male,

sometimes as a female power.

As a male divinity he is more particularly the god of shepherds and flocks.

As a female deity, Pales presides over husbandry and the fruitfulness of

herds. Her festivals, the Palilia, were celebrated on the 21st of April,

the day on which the city of Rome was founded. During this festival it was

customary for shepherds to ignite a mass of straw, through which they

rushed with their flocks, believing that this ordeal would purify them from

sin.

The name Palatine, which originally signified a pastoral colony, is derived

from this divinity. Her offerings were cakes and milk.

{182}

PICUS.

Picus, the son of Saturn and father of Faunus, was a woodland divinity,

gifted with prophetic powers.

An ancient myth relates that Picus was a beautiful youth, united to a nymph

called Canens. The sorceress Circe, infatuated by his beauty, endeavoured

to secure his love, but he rejected her advances, and she, in revenge,

changed him into a woodpecker, under which form he still retained his

powers of prophecy.

Picus is represented as a youth, with a woodpecker perched upon his head,

which bird became henceforth regarded as possessed of the power of

prophecy.

PICUMNUS AND PILUMNUS.

Picumnus and Pilumnus were two household divinities of the Romans, who were

the special presiding deities of new-born infants.

SILVANUS.

Silvanus was a woodland divinity, who, like Faunus, greatly resembled the

Greek Pan. He was the presiding deity of plantations and forests, and

specially protected the boundaries of fields.

Silvanus is represented as a hale old man, carrying a cypress-tree, for,

according to Roman mythology, the transformation of the youth Cyparissus

into the tree which bears his name was attributed to him.

His sacrifices consisted of milk, meat, wine, grapes, wheat-ears, and pigs.

TERMINUS.

Terminus was the god who presided over all boundaries and landmarks.

He was originally represented by a simple block of stone, which in later

times became surmounted by a {183} head of this divinity. Numa Pompilius,

the great benefactor of his people, anxious to inculcate respect for the

rights of property, specially enjoined the erection of these blocks of

stone, as a durable monument to mark the line dividing one property from

another. He also caused altars to be raised to Terminus, and instituted his

festival (the Terminalia), which was celebrated on the 23rd of February.

Upon one occasion, when Tarquin wished to remove the altars of several

deities, in order to build a new temple, it is said that Terminus and

Juventas alone objected to being displaced. This obstinate refusal on their

part was interpreted as a good omen, signifying that the city of Rome would

never lose her boundaries, and would remain ever young and vigorous.

CONSUS.

Consus was the god of secret counsel.

The Romans believed that when an idea developed itself spontaneously within

the mind of an individual, it was Consus who had prompted the suggestion.

This applied, however, more particularly to plans which resulted

satisfactorily.

An altar was erected to this divinity on the Circus Maximus, which was kept

always covered, except during his festival, the Consualia, which was

celebrated on the 18th of August.

LIBITINA.

Libitina was the goddess who presided over funerals. This divinity was

identified with Venus, possibly because the ancients considered that the

power of love extended even to the realms of death.

Her temple in Rome, which was erected by Servius Tullius, contained all the

requisites for funerals, and these could either be bought or hired there. A

register of all deaths which occurred in the city of Rome was kept in {184}

this temple, and in order to ascertain the rate of mortality, a piece of

money was paid by command of Servius Tullius, on the demise of each person.

LAVERNA.

Laverna was the presiding goddess of thieves, and of all artifice and

fraud. There was an altar erected to her near the Porta Lavernalis, which

was called after her, and she possessed a sacred grove on the Via Salavia.

COMUS.

Comus was the presiding genius of banquets, festive scenes, revelry, and

all joyous pleasures and reckless gaiety.

He is represented as a young man crowned with flowers, his face heated and

flushed with wine, leaning against a post in a half-sleepy and drunken

attitude, with a torch falling from his hand.

THE CAMENAE.

The Camenae were prophetic nymphs held in high veneration by the ancient

Italians. They were four in number, the best known of whom are Carmenta and

Egeria.

Carmenta was celebrated as being the mother of Evander, who led an Arcadian

colony into Italy, and founded a town on the river Tiber, which became

afterwards incorporated with the city of Rome. Evander is said to have been

the first who introduced Greek art and civilization into Italy, and also

the worship of Greek divinities.

A temple was erected to Carmenta on the Capitoline Hill, and a festival,

called the Carmentalia, was celebrated in her honour on the 11th of

January.

Egeria is said to have initiated Numa Pompilius in the forms of religious

worship, which he introduced among his people. She was regarded as the

giver of {185} life, and was therefore invoked by women before the birth of

their children.

The Camenae are frequently identified by Roman writers with the Muses.

GENII.

A comforting and assuring belief existed among the Romans, that each

individual was accompanied through life, from the hour of his birth to that

of his death, by a protecting spirit, called his genius, who prompted him

to good and noble deeds, and acted towards him as a guardian angel,

comforting him in sorrow, and guiding him throughout his earthly career.

In the course of time a second genius was believed to exist, of an evil

nature, who, as the instigator of all wrong-doing, was ever at war with the

beneficent genius; and on the issue of the conflict between these

antagonistic influences, depended the fate of the individual. The genii

were depicted as winged beings, greatly resembling our modern

representations of guardian angels.

Every state, town, or city, (as well as every man), possessed its special

genius. The sacrifices to the genii consisted of wine, cakes, and incense,

which were offered to them on birthdays.

The genius which guided a woman was called, after the queen of heaven,

Juno.

Among the Greeks, beings called Daemons were regarded as exercising similar

functions to those of the Roman genii. They were believed to be the spirits

of the righteous race which existed in the Golden Age, who watched over

mankind, carrying their prayers to the gods, and the gifts of the gods to

them.

MANES.

LEMURES (LARVAE) AND LARES.

The Manes were the spirits of the departed, and were of two kinds, viz.,

Lemures (or Larvae) and Lares. {186}

The Lemures were those Manes who haunted their former abodes on earth as

evil spirits, appearing at night under awful forms and hideous shapes,

greatly to the alarm of their friends and relatives. They were so feared

that a festival, called the Lemuralia, was celebrated in order to

propitiate them.

It appears extremely probable that the superstitions with regard to ghosts,

haunted houses, &c., which exist even at the present day, owe their origin

to this very ancient pagan source.

The Lares Familiares were a much more pleasing conception. They were the

spirits of the ancestors of each family, who exercised after death a

protecting power over the well-being and prosperity of the family to which

they had in life belonged. The place of honour beside the hearth was

occupied by the statue of the Lar of the house, who was supposed to have

been the founder of the family. This statue was the object of profound

veneration, and was honoured on all occasions by every member of the

family; a portion of each meal was laid before it, and it was believed to

take an active part in all family affairs and domestic events, whether of a

sad or joyful nature. Before starting on any expedition the master of the

house saluted the statue of the Lar, and, on his return, a solemn

thanksgiving was offered to this, the presiding deity of his hearth and

home, in grateful acknowledgment of his protection; whereupon the statue

was crowned with garlands of flowers, these being the favourite offerings

to the Lares on all occasions of especial family rejoicing.

The first act of a bride on entering her new abode was to do homage to the

Lar, in the belief that he would exercise over her a protecting influence

and shield her from evil.

In addition to those above enumerated there were also public Lares, who

were guardians of the state, highroads, country, and sea. Their temples

were always open for any pious worshipper to enter, and on their altars

public sacrifices were offered for the welfare of the state or city. {187}

PENATES.

The Penates were deities selected by each family, and frequently by its

individual members, as a special protector. Various causes led to this

selection. If, for instance, a child were born on the festival of Vesta, it

was thought that that deity would henceforward act as its special guardian.

If a youth possessed great business talents he adopted Mercury as his

tutelary deity; should he, on the other hand, develop a passion for music,

Apollo was selected as his patron god, and so forth. These became regarded

as the special divinities of the household, small images of them adorned

the surroundings of the hearth, and honours similar to those paid to the

Lares were accorded to them.

Just as there were public Lares so there were public Penates, which were

worshipped by the Roman people under the form of two youthful warriors,

who, in later times, were regarded as identical with Castor and Pollux.

They are generally represented on horseback, with conical caps on their

heads, and bearing long spears in their hands.

{188}

[Illustration]

PUBLIC WORSHIP OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS.

TEMPLES.

In very remote times the Greeks had no shrines or sanctuaries devoted to

public worship, but performed their devotions beneath the vast and

boundless canopy of heaven, in the great temple of nature itself. Believing

that their divinities throned above the clouds, pious worshippers naturally

sought the highest available points, in order to place themselves in the

closest communion possible with their gods; hence the summits of high

mountains were selected for devotional purposes, and the more exalted the

rank and importance of the divinity invoked, the more elevated was the site

selected for his or her worship. But the inconvenience attending this mode

of worship gradually suggested the idea of erecting edifices which would

afford means of shelter from the inclemency of the weather.

These structures were, in the first instance, of the most simple form, and

without decoration; but when, with the progress of civilization, the Greeks

became a {189} wealthy and powerful people, temples were built and adorned

with the greatest splendour and magnificence, talent, labour, and wealth

being lavished unsparingly on their erection and decoration; indeed so

massively were they constructed, that some of them have, to a certain

extent, withstood the ravages of time. The city of Athens especially

contains numerous remains of these buildings of antiquity. On the Acropolis

we may still behold, among other monuments of ancient art, the temple of

Athene-Polias, and that of Theseus, the latter of which is the most entire

ancient edifice in the world. In the island of Delos, also, are to be seen

the ruins of the temples of Apollo and Artemis, both of which are in a

wonderful state of preservation. These ruins are most valuable, being

sufficiently complete to enable us to study, by their aid, the plan and

character of the original structure.

Among the Lacedaemonians, however, we find no vestiges of these stately

temples, for they were specially enjoined by a law of Lycurgus to serve the

gods with as little outlay as possible. When the great lawgiver was asked

the reason of this injunction, he replied that the Lacedaemonians, being a

poor nation, might otherwise abstain altogether from the observance of

their religious duties, and wisely added that magnificent edifices and

costly sacrifices were not so pleasing to the gods, as the true piety and

unfeigned devotion of their worshippers.

The most ancient temples known to us served a double purpose: they were not

only consecrated to the service of the gods, but were at the same time

venerable monuments in honour of the dead. Thus, for instance, the temple

of Pallas-Athene, in the tower of the city of Larissa, served as the

sepulchre of Acrisius, and the Acropolis at Athens received the ashes of

Cecrops, founder of the city.

A temple was frequently dedicated to two or more gods, and was always built

after the manner considered most acceptable to the particular divinities to

whom it was consecrated; for just as trees, birds, and animals of {190}

every description were held to be sacred to certain deities, so almost

every god had a form of building peculiar to himself, which was deemed more

acceptable to him than any other. Thus the Doric style of architecture was

sacred to Zeus, Ares, and Heracles; the Ionic to Apollo, Artemis, and

Dionysus; and the Corinthian to Hestia.

In the porch of the temple stood a vessel of stone or brass, containing

holy water (which had been consecrated by putting into it a burning torch,

taken from the altar), with which all those admitted to take part in the

sacrifices were besprinkled. In the inmost recess of the sanctuary was the

most holy place, into which none but the priests were suffered to enter.

Temples in the country were usually surrounded with groves of trees. The

solitude of these shady retreats naturally tended to inspire the worshipper

with awe and reverence, added to which the delightful shade and coolness

afforded by tall leafy trees is peculiarly grateful in hot countries.

Indeed so general did this custom of building temples in groves become,

that all places devoted to sacred purposes, even where no trees existed,

were called groves. That this practice must be of very remote antiquity is

proved by the Biblical injunction, having for its object the separation of

the Jews from all idolatrous practices: "Thou shalt not plant thee a grove

of trees near unto the altar of the Lord thy God."

STATUES.

The Greeks worshipped their gods without any visible representations of

them until the time of Cecrops. The most ancient of these representations

consisted of square blocks of stone, upon which the name of the deity

intended to be represented was engraved. The first attempts at sculpture

were rude stocks, with a head at one end and a shapeless trunk at the

other, tapering slightly down to the feet, which, however, were not

divided, the limbs being in no way defined. But the artists of later times

devoted all their genius to the {191} successful production of the highest

ideals of their gods, some of which are preserved to this day, and are

regarded as examples of purest art.

On a pedestal in the centre of the edifice stood the statue of the divinity

to whom the temple was dedicated, surrounded by images of other gods, all

of which were fenced off by rails.

ALTARS.

The altar in a Greek temple, which stood in the centre of the building and

in front of the statue of the presiding deity, was generally of a circular

form, and constructed of stone. It was customary to engrave upon it the

name or distinguishing symbol of the divinity to whom it was dedicated; and

it was held so sacred that if any malefactor fled to it his life was safe

from his pursuers, and it was considered one of the greatest acts of

sacrilege to force him from this asylum.

The most ancient altars were adorned with horns, which in former times were

emblems of power and dignity, as wealth, and consequently importance,

consisted among most primitive nations in flocks and herds.

In addition to those erected in places of public worship, altars were

frequently raised in groves, on highways, or in the market-places of

cities.

The gods of the lower world had no altars whatever, ditches or trenches

being dug for the reception of the blood of the sacrifices offered to them.

PRIESTS.

In ancient times the priests were recognized as a special social caste, and

were distinguished not only by their sacerdotal vestments, but also by

their piety, wisdom, and blameless life. They were the chosen mediators

between gods and men, and offered prayers and sacrifices in the name of the

people, whom they also instructed as to what vows, gifts, and offerings

would be most acceptable to the gods.

{192}

Every deity had a different order of priests consecrated to his worship,

and in every place a high-priest was appointed, whose duty it was to

superintend the rest of his order, and also to carry out the more sacred

rites and religious observances.

Priests and priestesses were permitted to marry, but not a second time;

some, however, voluntarily adopted a life of celibacy.

SACRIFICES.

There is no doubt that a feeling of gratitude to the gods for their

protecting care, and the abundance with which they were believed to bless

mankind, has induced men of all nations and in all countries to feel a

desire to sacrifice to their divinities some portion of the gifts so

generously lavished upon them.

Among the Greeks, sacrifices were of various kinds. They consisted of

_free-will offerings_, _propitiatory offerings_, &c.

_Free-will offerings_ were grateful acknowledgments for benefits received,

and usually consisted of the first-fruits of the field, or the finest of

the flocks and herds, which were required to be without spot or blemish.

_Propitiatory offerings_ were brought with the object of appeasing the

anger of the gods.

In addition to those above enumerated, sacrifices were made, either with a

view of obtaining success in an enterprise about to be undertaken, or in

fulfilment of a vow, or at the command of an oracle.

Every sacrifice was accompanied by salt and also by a libation, which

usually consisted of wine, the cup being always filled to the brim,

indicating that the offering was made without stint. When sacrificing to

the infernal gods the cup containing the libation was filled with blood.

The animals offered to the Olympian divinities were white, whilst those to

the gods of the lower world were black. When a man offered a special

sacrifice for himself or his family it partook of the nature of his {193}

occupation; thus a shepherd brought a sheep, a vine-grower his grapes, and

so forth. But in the case of public sacrifices, the supposed individuality

of the deity was always consulted. For instance, to Demeter a sow was

offered, because that animal is apt to root up the seed-corn; to Dionysus a

goat, on account of its being destructive to vineyards, &c.

The value of offerings depended greatly upon the position of the

individual; it being regarded as a contempt of the gods for a rich man to

bring a sordid offering, whilst from a poor man the smallest oblation was

considered acceptable.

Hecatombs consisted of a hundred animals, and were offered by entire

communities, or by wealthy individuals who either desired, or had obtained

some special favour from the gods.

When a sacrifice was to be offered, a fire was kindled on the altar, into

which wine and frankincense were poured, in order to increase the flame. In

very ancient times, the victim was laid upon the altar and burned whole;

but after the time of Prometheus portions only of the shoulders, thighs,

entrails, &c., were sacrificed, the remainder becoming the perquisites of

the priests.

The officiating priests wore a crown composed of the leaves of the tree

sacred to the deity they invoked. Thus when sacrificing to Apollo the

crowns were of laurel; when to Heracles, of poplar. This practice of

wearing crowns was, at a later period, adopted by the general public at

banquets and other festivities.

On occasions of special solemnity the horns of the victim were overlaid

with gold, and the altars decked with flowers and sacred herbs.

The mode of conducting the sacrifices was as follows:--All things being

prepared, a salt cake, the sacrificial knife, and the crowns, were placed

in a small basket, and carried to the sanctuary by a young maiden,

whereupon the victim was conducted into the temple, frequently to the

accompaniment of music. If a small animal, it was driven loose to the

altar; if a large one, it was led by a {194} long trailing rope, in order

to indicate that it was not an unwilling sacrifice.

When all were assembled, the priest, after walking in solemn state round

the altar, besprinkled it with a mixture of meal and holy water, after

which he also besprinkled the assembled worshippers, and exhorted them to

join with him in prayer. The service being ended, the priest first tasted

the libation, and after causing the congregation to do the like, poured the

remainder between the horns of the victim, after which frankincense was

strewn upon the altar, and a portion of the meal and water poured upon the

animal, which was then killed. If by any chance the victim escaped the

stroke, or became in any way restless, it was regarded as an evil omen; if,

on the contrary, it expired without a struggle, it was considered

auspicious.

At the sacrifices to the aerial divinities music was added, whilst dances

were performed round the altar, and sacred hymns sung. These hymns were

generally composed in honour of the gods, and contained an account of their

famous actions, their clemency and beneficence, and the gifts conferred by

them on mankind. In conclusion, the gods were invoked for a continuance of

their favour, and when the service was ended a feast was held.

ORACLES.

The desire to penetrate the dark veil of futurity, and thereby to avert, if

possible, threatened danger, has animated mankind in all ages of the world.

Prophetic knowledge was sought by the Greeks at the mouth of oracles, whose

predictions were interpreted to the people by priests, specially appointed

for the purpose.

The most famous of these institutions was the oracle of Apollo at Delphi,

which was held in general repute all over the world. People flocked from

far and near to consult this wonderful mouth-piece of the gods, one month

in the year being specially set apart for the purpose.

{195}

The priestess who delivered the oracles was called the Pythia, after the

serpent Python, which was killed by Apollo. Having first bathed in the

waters of the Castalian spring, she was conducted into the temple by the

priests, and was seated on a sort of three-legged stool or table, called a

tripod, which was placed over the mouth of a cave whence issued sulphurous

vapours. Here she gradually became affected in a remarkable manner, and

fell into an ecstatic condition, in which she uttered wild and

extraordinary phrases, which were held to be the utterance of Apollo

himself; these the priests interpreted to the people, but in most cases in

so ambiguous a manner that the fulfilment of the prediction could not

easily be disputed. During the ceremony, clouds of incense filled the

temple, and hid the priestess from the view of the uninitiated, and at its

conclusion she was reconducted, in a fainting condition, to her cell.

The following is a striking instance of the ambiguity of oracular

predictions:--Croesus, the rich king of Lydia, before going to war with

Cyrus, king of Persia, consulted an oracle as to the probable success of

the expedition. The reply he received was, that if he crossed a certain

river he would destroy a great empire. Interpreting the response as being

favourable to his design, Croesus crossed the river, and encountered the

Persian king, by whom he was entirely defeated; and his own empire being

destroyed, the prediction of the oracle was said to have been fulfilled.

SOOTHSAYERS (AUGURS).

In addition to the manifestation of the will of the gods by means of

oracles, the Greeks also believed that certain men, called soothsayers,

were gifted with the power of foretelling future events from dreams, from

observing the flight of birds, the entrails of sacrificed animals, and even

the direction of the flames and smoke from the altar, &c. {196}

AUGURS.

The Roman soothsayers were called augurs, and played an important part in

the history of the Romans, as no enterprise was ever undertaken without

first consulting them with regard to its ultimate success.

FESTIVALS.

Festivals were instituted as seasons of rest, rejoicing, and thanksgiving,

and also as anniversaries to commemorate events of national importance. The

most ancient festivals were those held after the ingathering of the harvest

or vintage, and were celebrated with rejoicings and merry-makings, which

lasted many days, during which time the first-fruits of the fields were

offered to the gods, accompanied by prayers and thanksgiving.

The festivals held in cities in honour of special divinities, or in

commemoration of particular events, were conducted with an elaborate

ceremonial. Gorgeous processions, games, chariot races, &c., were

conspicuous features on these occasions, and dramatic performances,

representing particular episodes in the lives of the gods and heroes,

frequently took place.

We subjoin a few of the most interesting of the Greek and Roman festivals.

* * * * *

GREEK FESTIVALS.

ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES.

One of the most ancient and important among the festivals observed by the

Greeks was that of the Eleusinian Mysteries, which was celebrated in honour

of Demeter and Persephone. The name was derived from Eleusis, a town in

Attica, where the Mysteries were first introduced by the goddess herself.

They were divided into the {197} Greater and Lesser Mysteries, and,

according to the general account, were held every five years. The Greater,

which were celebrated in honour of Demeter, and lasted nine days, were held

in autumn; the Lesser, dedicated to Persephone (who at these festivals was

affectionately called Cora, or the maiden), were held in spring.

It is supposed that the secrets taught to the initiated by the priests--the

expounders of the Mysteries--were moral meanings, elucidated from the myths

concerning Demeter and Persephone; but the most important belief inculcated

was the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. That the lessons taught

were of the highest moral character is universally admitted. "The souls of

those who participated in them were filled with the sweetest hopes both as

to this and the future world;" and it was a common saying among the

Athenians: "In the Mysteries no one is sad."

The initiation into these solemn rites (which was originally the exclusive

privilege of the Athenians) was accompanied with awe-inspiring ceremonies;

and secrecy was so strictly enjoined that its violation was punished by

death. At the conclusion of the initiation great rejoicings took place,

chariot-races, wrestling matches, &c., were held, and solemn sacrifices

offered.

The initiation into the Lesser Mysteries served as a preparation for the

Greater.

THESMOPHORIA.

The Thesmophoria was another festival held in honour of Demeter, in her

character as presiding over marriage and social institutions resulting from

the spread of agriculture.

This festival was celebrated exclusively by women.

DIONYSIA.

A joyous spring festival was held in honour of Dionysus, in the month of

March, and lasted several days.

{198}

This festival, which was called the Greater Dionysia, was celebrated with

particular splendour at Athens, when strangers flocked from all parts of

the world to take part in the ceremonies. The city was gaily decorated, the

houses were garlanded with ivy-leaves, crowds perambulated the streets,

everything wore its holiday garb, and wine was freely indulged in.

[Illustration]

In the processions which took place during these festivities, the statue of

Dionysus was carried, and men and women, crowned with ivy and bearing the

thyrsus, were dressed in every description of grotesque costume, and played

on drums, pipes, flutes, cymbals, &c. Some representing Silenus rode on

asses, others wearing fawn-skins appeared as Pan or the Satyrs, and the

whole multitude sang paeans in honour of the wine-god. Public shows, games,

and sports took place, and the entire city was full of revelry.

What lent additional interest to these festivals was the custom of

introducing new comedies and tragedies to the public, representations of

which were given, and prizes awarded to those which elicited the greatest

admiration.

[Illustration]

The Lesser Dionysia were vintage festivals, celebrated in rural districts

in the month of November, and were characterized by drinking, feasting, and

joviality of all kinds.

In connection with some of the festivals in honour of Dionysus were certain

mystic observances, into which only women, called Menades or Bacchantes,

were initiated. Clad in fawn-skins, they assembled by night on the mountain

sides, {199} some carrying blazing torches, others thyrsi, and all animated

with religious enthusiasm and frenzy. They shouted, clapped their hands,

danced wildly, and worked themselves up to such a pitch of excitement and

fury that in their mad frenzy they tore in pieces the animal brought as a

sacrifice to Dionysus.

Under the name of Bacchanalia, these mystic rites were introduced into

Rome, where men also were allowed to participate in them; but they were

attended with such frightful excesses that the state authorities at length

interfered and prohibited them.

PANATHENAEA.

The Panathenaea was a famous festival celebrated in Athens in honour of

Athene-Polias, the guardian of the state. There were two festivals of this

name, the Lesser and the Greater Panathenaea. The former was held annually,

and the latter, which lasted several days, was celebrated every fourth

year.

For the Greater Panathenaea a garment, embroidered with gold, called the

Peplus, was specially woven by Athenian maidens, on which was represented

the victory gained by Athene over the Giants. This garment was suspended to

the mast of a ship which stood outside the city; and during the festival,

which was characterized by a grand procession, the ship (with the Peplus on

its mast) was impelled forward by means of invisible machinery, and formed

the most conspicuous feature of the pageant. The whole population, bearing

olive branches in their hands, took part in the procession; and amidst

music and rejoicings this imposing pageant wended its way to the temple of

Athene-Polias, where the Peplus was deposited on the statue of the goddess.

At this festival, Homer's poems were declaimed aloud, and poets also

introduced their own works to the public. Musical contests, foot and horse

races, and wrestling matches were held, and dances were performed by boys

in armour.

{200}

Men who had deserved well of their country were presented at the festival

with a crown of gold, and the name of the person so distinguished was

announced publicly by a herald.

The victors in the races and athletic games received, as a prize, a vase of

oil, supposed to have been extracted from the fruit of the sacred

olive-tree of Athene.

DAPHNEPHORIA.

The Daphnephoria was celebrated at Thebes in honour of Apollo every ninth

year.

The distinguishing feature of this festival was a procession to the temple

of Apollo, in which a young priest (the Daphnephorus) of noble descent,

splendidly attired and wearing a crown of gold, was preceded by a youth,

carrying an emblematical representation of the sun, moon, stars, and days

of the year, and followed by beautiful maidens bearing laurel branches, and

singing hymns in honour of the god.

* * * * *

ROMAN FESTIVALS.

SATURNALIA.

The Saturnalia, a national festival held in December in honour of Saturn,

was celebrated after the ingathering of the harvest, and lasted several

days.

It was a time of universal rejoicing, cessation from labour, and

merry-making. School children had holidays, friends sent presents to each

other, the law-courts were closed, and no business was transacted.

Crowds of people from the surrounding country flocked to Rome for this

festival attired in every variety of masquerade dress; practical jokes were

given and received with the utmost good humour, shouts of exultation filled

{201} the air, all classes abandoned themselves to enjoyment, and

unrestrained hilarity reigned supreme. Social distinctions were for a time

suspended, or even reversed; and so heartily was the spirit of this

festival entered into, that masters waited upon their slaves at banquets

which they provided for them; the slaves being dressed upon these occasions

in the garments of their masters.

There appears little doubt that the modern Carnival is a survival of the

ancient Saturnalia.

CEREALIA.

This festival was celebrated in honour of Ceres. It was solemnized

exclusively by women, who, dressed in white garments, wandered about with

torches in their hands, to represent the search of the goddess for her

daughter Proserpine.

During this festival, games were celebrated in the Circus Maximus, to which

none were admitted unless clothed in white.

VESTALIA.

The Vestalia was a festival held in honour of Vesta on the 9th of June, and

was celebrated exclusively by women, who walked barefooted in procession to

the temple of the goddess.

The priestesses of Vesta, called Vestales or Vestal Virgins, played a

conspicuous part in these festivals. They were six in number, and were

chosen--between the ages of six and ten--from the noblest families in Rome.

Their term of office was thirty years. During the first ten years, they

were initiated in their religious duties, during the second ten they

performed them, and during the third they instructed novices. Their chief

duty was to watch and feed the ever-burning flame on the altar of Vesta,

the extinction of which was regarded as a national calamity of ominous

import.

{202}

Great honours and privileges were accorded to them; the best seats were

reserved for their use at all public spectacles, and even the consuls and

praetors made way for them to pass. If they met a criminal on his way to

execution they had the power to pardon him, provided it could be proved

that the meeting was accidental.

The Vestales were vowed to chastity, a violation of which was visited by

the frightful punishment of being buried alive.

* * * * *

{203}

PART II.--LEGENDS.

CADMUS.

The following is the legendary account of the founding of Thebes:--

After the abduction of his daughter Europa by Zeus, Agenor, king of

Phoenicia, unable to reconcile himself to her loss, despatched his son

Cadmus in search of her, desiring him not to return without his sister.

For many years Cadmus pursued his search through various countries, but

without success. Not daring to return home without her, he consulted the

oracle of Apollo at Delphi; and the reply was that he must desist from his

task, and take upon himself a new duty, _i.e._ that of founding a city, the

site of which would be indicated to him by a heifer which had never borne

the yoke, and which would lie down on the spot whereon the city was to be

built.

Scarcely had Cadmus left the sacred fane, when he observed a heifer who

bore no marks of servitude on her neck, walking slowly in front of him. He

followed the animal for a considerable distance, until at length, on the

site where Thebes afterwards stood, she looked towards heaven and, gently

lowing, lay down in the long grass. Grateful for this mark of divine

favour, Cadmus resolved to offer up the animal as a sacrifice, and

accordingly sent his followers to fetch water for the libation from a

neighbouring spring. This spring, which was sacred to Ares, was situated in

a wood, and guarded by a fierce dragon, who, at the approach of the

retainers of Cadmus, suddenly pounced upon them and killed them.

After waiting some time for the return of his servants {204} Cadmus grew

impatient, and hastily arming himself with his lance and spear, set out to

seek them. On reaching the spot, the mangled remains of his unfortunate

followers met his view, and near them he beheld the frightful monster,

dripping with the blood of his victims. Seizing a huge rock, the hero

hurled it with all his might upon the dragon; but protected by his tough

black skin and steely scales as by a coat of mail, he remained unhurt.

Cadmus now tried his lance, and with more success, for it pierced the side

of the beast, who, furious with pain, sprang at his adversary, when Cadmus,

leaping aside, succeeded in fixing the point of his spear within his jaws,

which final stroke put an end to the encounter.

While Cadmus stood surveying his vanquished foe Pallas-Athene appeared to

him, and commanded him to sow the teeth of the dead dragon in the ground.

He obeyed; and out of the furrows there arose a band of armed men, who at

once commenced to fight with each other, until all except five were killed.

These last surviving warriors made peace with each other, and it was with

their assistance that Cadmus now built the famous city of Thebes. In later

times the noblest Theban families proudly claimed their descent from these

mighty earth-born warriors.

Ares was furious with rage when he discovered that Cadmus had slain his

dragon, and would have killed him had not Zeus interfered, and induced him

to mitigate his punishment to that of servitude for the term of eight

years. At the end of that time the god of war became reconciled to Cadmus,

and, in token of his forgiveness, bestowed upon him the hand of his

daughter Harmonia in marriage. Their nuptials were almost as celebrated as

those of Peleus and Thetis. All the gods honoured them with their presence,

and offered rich gifts and congratulations. Cadmus himself presented his

lovely bride with a splendid necklace fashioned by Hephaestus, which,

however, after the death of Harmonia, always proved fatal to its possessor.

The children of Cadmus and Harmonia were one son, {205} Polydorus, and four

daughters, Autonoe, Ino, Semele, and Agave.

For many years the founder of Thebes reigned happily, but at length a

conspiracy was formed against him, and he was deprived of his throne by his

grandson Pentheus. Accompanied by his faithful wife Harmonia, he retired

into Illyria, and after death they were both changed by Zeus into serpents,

and transferred to Elysium.

PERSEUS.

Perseus, one of the most renowned of the legendary heroes of antiquity, was

the son of Zeus and Danae, daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos.

An oracle having foretold to Acrisius that a son of Danae would be the

cause of his death, he imprisoned her in a tower of brass in order to keep

her secluded from the world. Zeus, however, descended through the roof of

the tower in the form of a shower of gold, and the lovely Danae became his

bride.

For four years Acrisius remained in ignorance of this union, but one

evening as he chanced to pass by the brazen chamber, he heard the cry of a

young child proceeding from within, which led to the discovery of his

daughter's marriage with Zeus. Enraged at finding all his precautions

unavailing, Acrisius commanded the mother and child to be placed in a chest

and thrown into the sea.

But it was not the will of Zeus that they should perish. He directed

Poseidon to calm the troubled waters, and caused the chest to float safely

to the island of Seriphus. Dictys, brother of Polydectes, king of the

island, was fishing on the sea-shore when he saw the chest stranded on the

beach; and pitying the helpless condition of its unhappy occupants, he

conducted them to the palace of the king, where they were treated with the

greatest kindness.

Polydectes eventually became united to Danae, and {206} bestowed upon

Perseus an education befitting a hero. When he saw his stepson develop into

a noble and manly youth he endeavoured to instil into his mind a desire to

signalize himself by the achievement of some great and heroic deed, and

after mature deliberation it was decided that the slaying of the Gorgon,

Medusa, would bring him the greatest renown.

For the successful accomplishment of his object it was necessary for him to

be provided with a pair of winged sandals, a magic wallet, and the helmet

of Aides, which rendered the wearer invisible, all of which were in the

keeping of the Nymphs, the place of whose abode was known only to the Graeae.

Perseus started on his expedition, and, guided by Hermes and Pallas-Athene,

arrived, after a long journey, in the far-off region, on the borders of

Oceanus, where dwelt the Graeae, daughters of Phorcys and Ceto. He at once

applied to them for the necessary information, and on their refusing to

grant it he deprived them of their single eye and tooth, which he only

restored to them when they gave him full directions with regard to his

route. He then proceeded to the abode of the Nymphs, from whom he obtained

the objects indispensable for his purpose.

Equipped with the magic helmet and wallet, and armed with a sickle, the

gift of Hermes, he attached to his feet the winged sandals, and flew to the

abode of the Gorgons, whom he found fast asleep. Now as Perseus had been

warned by his celestial guides that whoever looked upon these weird sisters

would be transformed into stone, he stood with averted face before the

sleepers, and caught on his bright metal shield their triple image. Then,

guided by Pallas-Athene, he cut off the head of the Medusa, which he placed

in his wallet. No sooner had he done so than from the headless trunk there

sprang forth the winged steed Pegasus, and Chrysaor, the father of the

winged giant Geryon. He now hastened to elude the pursuit of the two

surviving sisters, who, aroused from their slumbers, eagerly rushed to

avenge the death of their sister.

{207}

His invisible helmet and winged sandals here stood him in good stead; for

the former concealed him from the view of the Gorgons, whilst the latter

bore him swiftly over land and sea, far beyond the reach of pursuit. In

passing over the burning plains of Libya the drops of blood from the head

of the Medusa oozed through the wallet, and falling on the hot sands below

produced a brood of many-coloured snakes, which spread all over the

country.

Perseus continued his flight until he reached the kingdom of Atlas, of whom

he begged rest and shelter. But as this king possessed a valuable orchard,

in which every tree bore golden fruit, he was fearful lest the slayer of

the Medusa might destroy the dragon which guarded it, and then rob him of

his treasures. He therefore refused to grant the hospitality which the hero

demanded, whereupon Perseus, exasperated at the churlish repulse, produced

from his wallet the head of the Medusa, and holding it towards the king,

transformed him into a stony mountain. Beard and hair erected themselves

into forests; shoulders, hands, and limbs became huge rocks, and the head

grew up into a craggy peak which reached into the clouds.

Perseus then resumed his travels. His winged sandals bore him over deserts

and mountains, until he arrived at AEthiopia, the kingdom of King Cepheus.

Here he found the country inundated with disastrous floods, towns and

villages destroyed, and everywhere signs of desolation and ruin. On a

projecting cliff close to the shore he beheld a lovely maiden chained to a

rock. This was Andromeda, the king's daughter. Her mother Cassiopea, having

boasted that her beauty surpassed that of the Nereides, the angry

sea-nymphs appealed to Poseidon to avenge their wrongs, whereupon the

sea-god devastated the country with a terrible inundation, which brought

with it a huge monster who devoured all that came in his way.

In their distress the unfortunate AEthiopians applied to the oracle of

Jupiter-Ammon, in the Libyan desert, {208} and obtained the response, that

only by the sacrifice of the king's daughter to the monster could the

country and people be saved.

Cepheus, who was tenderly attached to his child, at first refused to listen

to this dreadful proposal; but overcome at length by the prayers and

solicitations of his unhappy subjects, the heart-broken father gave up his

child for the welfare of his country. Andromeda was accordingly chained to

a rock on the sea-shore to serve as a prey to the monster, whilst her

unhappy parents bewailed her sad fate on the beach below.

On being informed of the meaning of this tragic scene, Perseus proposed to

Cepheus to slay the dragon, on condition that the lovely victim should

become his bride. Overjoyed at the prospect of Andromeda's release, the

king gladly acceded to the stipulation, and Perseus hastened to the rock,

to breathe words of hope and comfort to the trembling maiden. Then assuming

once more the helmet of Aides, he mounted into the air, and awaited the

approach of the monster.

Presently the sea opened, and the shark's head of the gigantic beast of the

deep raised itself above the waves. Lashing his tail furiously from side to

side, he leaped forward to seize his victim; but the gallant hero, watching

his opportunity, suddenly darted down, and producing the head of the Medusa

from his wallet, held it before the eyes of the dragon, whose hideous body

became gradually transformed into a huge black rock, which remained for

ever a silent witness of the miraculous deliverance of Andromeda. Perseus

then led the maiden to her now happy parents, who, anxious to evince their

gratitude to her deliverer ordered immediate preparations to be made for

the nuptial feast. But the young hero was not to bear away his lovely bride

uncontested; for in the midst of the banquet, Phineus, the king's brother,

to whom Andromeda had previously been betrothed, returned to claim his

bride. Followed by a band of armed warriors he forced his way into the

hall, and a desperate encounter took place between the rivals, {209} which

might have terminated fatally for Perseus, had he not suddenly bethought

himself of the Medusa's head. Calling to his friends to avert their faces,

he drew it from his wallet, and held it before Phineus and his formidable

body-guard, whereupon they all stiffened into stone.

[Illustration]

Perseus now took leave of the AEthiopian king, and, accompanied by his

beautiful bride, returned to Seriphus, where a joyful meeting took place

between Danae and her son. He then sent a messenger to his grandfather,

informing him that he intended returning to Argos; but Acrisius, fearing

the fulfilment of the oracular prediction, fled for protection to his

friend Teutemias, king of Larissa. Anxious to induce the aged monarch to

return to Argos, Perseus followed him thither. But here a strange fatality

occurred. Whilst taking part in some funereal games, celebrated in honour

of the king's father, Perseus, by an unfortunate throw of the discus,

accidentally struck his grandfather, and thereby was the innocent cause of

his death.

After celebrating the funereal rites of Acrisius with due solemnity,

Perseus returned to Argos; but feeling loath to occupy the throne of one

whose death he had caused, he exchanged kingdoms with Megapenthes, king of

Tiryns, and in course of time founded the cities of Mycenae and Midea.

The head of the Medusa he presented to his divine patroness, Pallas-Athene,

who placed it in the centre of her shield.

Many great heroes were descended from Perseus and Andromeda, foremost among

whom was Heracles, whose mother, Alcmene, was their granddaughter.

Heroic honours were paid to Perseus, not only {210} throughout Argos, but

also at Athens and in the island of Seriphus.

ION.

Ion was the son of Creusa (the beauteous daughter of Erechtheus, king of

Athens) and the sun-god Phoebus-Apollo, to whom she was united without the

knowledge of her father.

Fearing the anger of Erechtheus, Creusa placed her new-born babe in a

little wicker basket, and hanging some golden charms round his neck,

invoked for him the protection of the gods, and concealed him in a lonely

cave. Apollo, pitying his deserted child, sent Hermes to convey him to

Delphi, where he deposited his charge on the steps of the temple. Next

morning the Delphic priestess discovered the infant, and was so charmed by

his engaging appearance that she adopted him as her own son. The young

child was carefully tended and reared by his kind foster-mother, and was

brought up in the service of the temple, where he was intrusted with some

of the minor duties of the holy edifice.

And now to return to Creusa. During a war with the Euboeans, in which the

latter were signally defeated, Xuthus, son of AEolus, greatly distinguished

himself on the side of the Athenians, and as a reward for his valuable

services, the hand of Creusa, the king's daughter, was bestowed upon him in

marriage. Their union, however, was not blest with children, and as this

was a source of great grief to both of them, they repaired to Delphi in

order to consult the oracle. The response was, that Xuthus should regard

the first person who met him on leaving the sanctuary as his son. Now it

happened that Ion, the young guardian of the temple, was the first to greet

his view, and when Xuthus beheld the beautiful youth, he gladly welcomed

him as his son, declaring that the gods had sent him to be a blessing and

comfort to his old age. Creusa, however, who concluded that the youth was

the offspring of a secret marriage on the part of her husband, was filled

with suspicion and jealousy; {211} when an old servant, observing her

grief, begged her to be comforted, assuring her that the cause of her

distress should be speedily removed.

When, upon the occasion of the public adoption of his son, Xuthus gave a

grand banquet, the old servant of Creusa contrived to mix a strong poison

in the wine of the unsuspecting Ion. But the youth--according to the pious

custom of the ancients, of offering a libation to the gods before partaking

of any repast--poured upon the ground a portion of the wine before putting

it to his lips, when suddenly, as if by a miracle, a dove flew into the

banquet-hall, and sipped of the wine of the libation; whereupon the poor

little creature began to quiver in every limb, and in a few moments

expired.

Ion's suspicions at once fell upon the obsequious servant of Creusa, who

with such officious attention had filled his cup. He violently seized the

old man, and accused him of his murderous intentions. Unprepared for this

sudden attack he admitted his guilt, but pointed to the wife of Xuthus as

the instigator of the crime. Ion was about to avenge himself upon Creusa,

when, by means of the divine intervention of Apollo, his foster-mother, the

Delphic priestess appeared on the scene, and explained the true

relationship which existed between Creusa and Ion. In order to set all

doubts at rest, she produced the charms which she had found round the neck

of the infant, and also the wicker basket in which he had been conveyed to

Delphi.

Mother and son now became reconciled to each other, and Creusa revealed to

Ion the secret of his divine origin. The priestess of Delphi foretold that

he would become the father of a great nation, called after him the Ionians,

and also that Xuthus and Creusa would have a son called Dorus, who would be

the progenitor of the Dorian people, both of which predictions were in due

time verified.

DAEDALUS and ICARUS.

Daedalus, a descendant of Erechtheus, was an Athenian architect, sculptor,

and mechanician. He was the first {212} to introduce the art of sculpture

in its higher development, for before his time statues were merely rude

representations, having the limbs altogether undefined.

But great as was his genius, still greater was his vanity, and he could

brook no rival. Now his nephew and pupil, Talus, exhibited great talent,

having invented both the saw and the compass, and Daedalus, fearing lest he

might overshadow his own fame, secretly killed him by throwing him down

from the citadel of Pallas-Athene. The murder being discovered, Daedalus was

summoned before the court of the Areopagus and condemned to death; but he

made his escape to the island of Crete, where he was received by king Minos

in a manner worthy of his great reputation.

Daedalus constructed for the king the world-renowned labyrinth, which was an

immense building, full of intricate passages, intersecting each other in

such a manner, that even Daedalus himself is said, upon one occasion, to

have nearly lost his way in it; and it was in this building the king placed

the Minotaur, a monster with the head and shoulders of a bull and the body

of a man.

In the course of time the great artist became weary of his long exile, more

especially as the king, under the guise of friendship, kept him almost a

prisoner. He therefore resolved to make his escape, and for this purpose

ingeniously contrived wings for himself and his young son Icarus, whom he

diligently trained how to use them. Having awaited a favourable

opportunity, father and son commenced their flight, and were well on their

way when Icarus, pleased with the novel sensation, forgot altogether his

father's oft-repeated injunction not to approach too near the sun. The

consequence was that the wax, by means of which his wings were attached,

melted, and he fell into the sea and was drowned. The body of the

unfortunate Icarus was washed up by the tide, and was buried by the

bereaved father on an island which he called after his son, Icaria.

After this sad event, Daedalus winged his flight to the island of Sicily,

where he met with a kind welcome from {213} king Cocalus, for whom he

constructed several important public works. But no sooner did Minos receive

the intelligence that his great architect had found an asylum with Cocalus

than he sailed over to Sicily with a large army, and sent messengers to the

Sicilian king demanding the surrender of his guest. Cocalus feigned

compliance and invited Minos to his palace, where he was treacherously put

to death in a warm bath. The body of their king was brought to Agrigent by

the Cretans, where it was buried with great pomp, and over his tomb a

temple to Aphrodite was erected.

Daedalus passed the remainder of his life tranquilly in the island of

Sicily, where he occupied himself in the construction of various beautiful

works of art.

THE ARGONAUTS.

Aeson, king of Iolcus, was forced to fly from his dominions, which had been

usurped by his younger brother, Pelias, and with difficulty succeeded in

saving the life of his young son, Jason, who was at that time only ten

years of age. He intrusted him to the care of the Centaur Chiron, by whom

he was carefully trained in company with other noble youths, who, like

himself, afterwards signalized themselves by their bravery and heroic

exploits. For ten years Jason remained in the cave of the Centaur, by whom

he was instructed in all useful and warlike arts. But as he approached

manhood he became filled with an unconquerable desire to regain his

paternal inheritance. He therefore took leave of his kind friend and

preceptor, and set out for Iolcus to demand from his uncle Pelias the

kingdom which he had so unjustly usurped.

In the course of his journey he came to a broad and foaming river, on the

banks of which he perceived an old woman, who implored him to help her

across. At first he hesitated, knowing that even alone he would find some

difficulty in stemming the fierce torrent; but, {214} pitying her forlorn

condition, he raised her in his arms, and succeeded, with a great effort,

in reaching the opposite shore. But as soon as her feet had touched the

earth she became transformed into a beautiful woman, who, looking kindly at

the bewildered youth, informed him that she was the goddess Hera, and that

she would henceforth guide and protect him throughout his career. She then

disappeared, and, full of hope and courage at this divine manifestation,

Jason pursued his journey. He now perceived that in crossing the river he

had lost one of his sandals, but as it could not be recovered he was

obliged to proceed without it.

On his arrival at Iolcus he found his uncle in the market-place, offering

up a public sacrifice to Poseidon. When the king had concluded his

offering, his eye fell upon the distinguished stranger, whose manly beauty

and heroic bearing had already attracted the attention of his people.

Observing that one foot was unshod, he was reminded of an oracular

prediction which foretold to him the loss of his kingdom by a man wearing

only one sandal. He, however, disguised his fears, conversed kindly with

the youth, and drew from him his name and errand. Then pretending to be

highly pleased with his nephew, Pelias entertained him sumptuously for five

days, during which time all was festivity and rejoicing. On the sixth,

Jason appeared before his uncle, and with manly firmness demanded from him

the throne and kingdom which were his by right. Pelias, dissembling his

true feelings, smilingly consented to grant his request, provided that, in

return, Jason would undertake an expedition for him, which his advanced age

prevented him from accomplishing himself. He informed his nephew that the

shade of Phryxus had appeared to him in his dreams, and entreated him to

bring back from Colchis his mortal remains and the Golden Fleece; and added

that if Jason succeeded in obtaining for him these sacred relics, throne,

kingdom, and sceptre should be his.

{215}

STORY OF THE GOLDEN FLEECE.

Athamas, king of Boeotia, had married Nephele, a cloud-nymph, and their

children were Helle and Phryxus. The restless and wandering nature of

Nephele, however, soon wearied her husband, who, being a mortal, had little

sympathy with his ethereal consort; so he divorced her, and married the

beautiful but wicked Ino (sister of Semele), who hated her step-children,

and even planned their destruction. But the watchful Nephele contrived to

circumvent her cruel designs, and succeeded in getting the children out of

the palace. She then placed them both on the back of a winged ram, with a

fleece of pure gold, which had been given to her by Hermes; and on this

wonderful animal brother and sister rode through the air over land and sea;

but on the way Helle, becoming seized with giddiness, fell into the sea

(called after her the Hellespont) and was drowned.

Phryxus arrived safely at Colchis, where he was hospitably received by king

Aetes, who gave him one of his daughters in marriage. In gratitude to Zeus

for the protection accorded him during his flight, Phryxus sacrificed to

him the golden ram, whilst the fleece he presented to Aetes, who nailed it

up in the Grove of Ares, and dedicated it to the god of War. An oracle

having declared that the life of Aetes depended on the safe-keeping of the

fleece, he carefully guarded the entrance to the grove by placing before it

an immense dragon, which never slept.

BUILDING AND LAUNCH OF THE ARGO.--We will now return to Jason, who eagerly

undertook the perilous expedition proposed to him by his uncle, who, well

aware of the dangers attending such an enterprise, hoped by this means to

rid himself for ever of the unwelcome intruder.

Jason accordingly began to arrange his plans without delay, and invited the

young heroes whose friendship he {216} had formed whilst under the care of

Chiron, to join him in the perilous expedition. None refused the

invitation, all feeling honoured at being allowed the privilege of taking

part in so noble and heroic an undertaking.

Jason now applied to Argos, one of the cleverest ship-builders of his time,

who, under the guidance of Pallas-Athene, built for him a splendid

fifty-oared galley, which was called the Argo, after the builder. In the

upper deck of the vessel the goddess had imbedded a board from the speaking

oak of the oracle of Zeus at Dodona, which ever retained its powers of

prophecy. The exterior of the ship was ornamented with magnificent

carvings, and the whole vessel was so strongly built that it defied the

power of the winds and waves, and was, nevertheless, so light that the

heroes, when necessary, were able to carry it on their shoulders. When the

vessel was completed, the Argonauts (so called after their ship) assembled,

and their places were distributed by lot.

Jason was appointed commander-in-chief of the expedition, Tiphys acted as

steersman, Lynceus as pilot. In the bow of the vessel sat the renowned hero

Heracles; in the stern, Peleus (father of Achilles) and Telamon (the father

of Ajax the Great). In the inner space were Castor and Pollux, Neleus (the

father of Nestor), Admetus (the husband of Alcestes), Meleager (the slayer

of the Calydonian boar), Orpheus (the renowned singer), Menoctius (the

father of Patroclus), Theseus (afterwards king of Athens) and his friend

Pirithoeus (the son of Ixion), Hylas (the adopted son of Heracles), Euphemus

(the son of Poseidon), Oileus (father of Ajax the Lesser), Zetes and Calais

(the winged sons of Boreas), Idmon the Seer (the son of Apollo), Mopsus

(the Thessalian prophet), &c. &c.

Before their departure Jason offered a solemn sacrifice to Poseidon and all

the other sea-deities; he also invoked the protection of Zeus and the

Fates, and then, Mopsus having taken the auguries, and found them

auspicious, the heroes stepped on board. And now a favourable breeze having

sprung up, they take their allotted places, {217} the anchor is weighed,

and the ship glides like a bird out of the harbour into the waters of the

great sea.

ARRIVAL AT LEMNOS.--The Argo, with her brave crew of fifty heroes, was soon

out of sight, and the sea-breeze only wafted to the shore a faint echo of

the sweet strains of Orpheus.

For a time all went smoothly, but the vessel was soon driven, by stress of

weather, to take refuge in a harbour in the island of Lemnos. This island

was inhabited by women only, who, the year before, in a fit of mad

jealousy, had killed all the male population of the island, with the

exception of the father of their queen, Hypsipyle. As the protection of

their island now devolved upon themselves they were always on the look-out

for danger. When, therefore, they sighted the Argo from afar they armed

themselves and rushed to the shore, determined to repel any invasion of

their territory.

On arriving in port the Argonauts, astonished at beholding an armed crowd

of women, despatched a herald in one of their boats, bearing the staff of

peace and friendship. Hypsipyle, the queen, proposed that food and presents

should be sent to the strangers, in order to prevent their landing; but her

old nurse, who stood beside her, suggested that this would be a good

opportunity to provide themselves with noble husbands, who would act as

their defenders, and thus put an end to their constant fears. Hypsipyle

listened attentively to the advice of her nurse, and after some

consultation, decided to invite the strangers into the city. Robed in his

purple mantle, the gift of Pallas-Athene, Jason, accompanied by some of his

companions, stepped on shore, where he was met by a deputation consisting

of the most beautiful of the Lemnian women, and, as commander of the

expedition, was invited into the palace of the queen.

When he appeared before Hypsipyle, she was so struck with his godlike and

heroic presence that she presented him with her father's sceptre, and

invited him to seat himself on the throne beside her. Jason thereupon {218}

took up his residence in the royal castle, whilst his companions scattered

themselves through the town, spending their time in feasting and pleasure.

Heracles, with a few chosen comrades, alone remained on board.

From day to day their departure was delayed, and the Argonauts, in their

new life of dissipation, had almost forgotten the object of the expedition,

when Heracles suddenly appeared amongst them, and at last recalled them to

a sense of their duty.

GIANTS AND DOLIONES.--The Argonauts now pursued their voyage, till contrary

winds drove them towards an island, inhabited by the Doliones, whose king

Cyzicus received them with great kindness and hospitality. The Doliones

were descendants of Poseidon, who protected them against the frequent

attacks of their fierce and formidable neighbours, the earth-born

Giants--monsters with six arms.

Whilst his companions were attending a banquet given by king Cyzicus,

Heracles, who, as usual, had remained behind to guard the ship, observed

that these Giants were busy blocking up the harbour with huge rocks. He at

once realized the danger, and, attacking them with his arrows, succeeded in

considerably thinning their numbers; then, assisted by the heroes, who at

length came to his aid, he effectually destroyed the remainder.

The Argo now steered out of the harbour and set sail; but in consequence of

a severe storm which arose at night, was driven back once more to the

shores of the kindly Doliones. Unfortunately, however, owing to the

darkness of the night, the inhabitants failed to recognize their former

guests, and, mistaking them for enemies, commenced to attack them. Those

who had so recently parted as friends were now engaged in mortal combat,

and in the battle which ensued, Jason himself pierced to the heart his

friend king Cyzicus; whereupon the Doliones, being deprived of their

leader, fled to their city and closed the gates. When morning dawned, and

both sides perceived their error, they were filled with {219} the deepest

sorrow and remorse; and for three days the heroes remained with the

Doliones, celebrating the funereal rites of the slain, with every

demonstration of mourning and solemnity.

HERACLES LEFT BEHIND.--The Argonauts once more set sail, and after a stormy

voyage arrived at Mysia, where they were hospitably received by the

inhabitants, who spread before them plentiful banquets and sumptuously

regaled them.

While his friends were feasting, Heracles, who had declined to join them,

went into the forest to seek a fir-tree which he required for an oar, and

was missed by his adopted son Hylas, who set out to seek him. When the

youth arrived at a spring, in the most secluded part of the forest, the

nymph of the fountain was so struck by his beauty that she drew him down

beneath the waters, and he was seen no more. Polyphemus, one of the heroes,

who happened to be also in the forest, heard his cry for help, and on

meeting Heracles informed him of the circumstance. They at once set out in

search of the missing youth, no traces of whom were to be found, and whilst

they were engaged looking for him, the Argo set sail and left them behind.

The ship had proceeded some distance before the absence of Heracles was

observed. Some of the heroes were in favour of returning for him, others

wished to proceed on their journey, when, in the midst of the dispute, the

sea-god Glaucus arose from the waves, and informed them that it was the

will of Zeus that Heracles, having another mission to perform, should

remain behind. The Argonauts continued their voyage without their

companions; Heracles returned to Argos, whilst Polyphemus remained with the

Mysians, where he founded a city and became its king.

CONTEST WITH AMYCUS.--Next morning the Argo touched at the country of the

Bebrycians, whose king Amycus was a famous pugilist, and permitted no

strangers to leave his shores without matching their {220} strength with

his. When the heroes, therefore, demanded permission to land, they were

informed that they could only do so provided that one of their number

should engage in a boxing-match with the king. Pollux, who was the best

pugilist in Greece, was selected as their champion, and a contest took

place, which, after a tremendous struggle, proved fatal to Amycus, who had

hitherto been victorious in all similar encounters.

PHINEUS AND THE HARPIES.--They now proceeded towards Bithynia, where

reigned the blind old prophet-king Phineus, son of Agenor. Phineus had been

punished by the gods with premature old age and blindness for having abused

the gift of prophecy. He was also tormented by the Harpies, who swooped

down upon his food, which they either devoured or so defiled as to render

it unfit to be eaten. This poor old man, trembling with the weakness of

age, and faint with hunger, appeared before the Argonauts, and implored

their assistance against his fiendish tormentors, whereupon Zetes and

Calais, the winged sons of Boreas, recognizing in him the husband of their

sister Cleopatra, affectionately embraced him, and promised to rescue him

from his painful position.

The heroes prepared a banquet on the sea-shore, to which they invited

Phineus; but no sooner had he taken his place, than the Harpies appeared

and devoured all the viands. Zetes and Calais now rose up into the air,

drove the Harpies away, and were pursuing them with drawn swords, when

Iris, the swift-footed messenger of the gods, appeared, and desired them to

desist from their work of vengeance, promising that Phineus should be no

longer molested.

Freed at length from his tormentors the old man sat down and enjoyed a

plentiful repast with his kind friends the Argonauts, who now informed him

of the object of their voyage. In gratitude for his deliverance Phineus

gave them much useful information concerning their journey, and not only

warned them of the manifold {221} dangers awaiting them, but also

instructed them how they might be overcome.

PASSAGE OF THE SYMPLEGADES.--After a fortnight's sojourn in Bithynia the

Argonauts once more set sail, but had not proceeded far on their course,

when they heard a fearful and tremendous crash. This was caused by the

meeting of two great rocky islands, called the Symplegades, which floated

about in the sea, and constantly met and separated.

Before leaving Bithynia, the blind old seer, Phineus, had informed them

that they would be compelled to pass between these terrible rocks, and he

instructed them how to do so with safety. As they now approached the scene

of danger they remembered his advice, and acted upon it. Typhus, the

steersman, stood at the helm, whilst Euphemus held in his hand a dove ready

to be let loose; for Phineus had told them that if the dove ventured to fly

through, they might safely follow. Euphemus now despatched the bird, which

passed swiftly through the islands, yet not without losing some of the

feathers of her tail, so speedily did they reunite. Seizing the moment when

the rocks once more separated, the Argonauts worked at their oars with all

their might, and achieved the perilous passage in safety.

After the miraculous passage of the Argo, the Symplegades became

permanently united, and attached to the bottom of the sea.

THE STYMPHALIDES.--The Argo pursued her course along the southern coast of

the Pontus, and arrived at the island of Aretias, which was inhabited by

birds, who, as they flew through the air, discharged from their wings

feathers sharp as arrows.

As the ship was gliding along, Oileus was wounded by one of these birds,

whereupon the Argonauts held a council, and by the advice of Amphidamas, an

experienced hero, all put on their helmets, and held up their glittering

shields, uttering, at the same time, such fearful cries that {222} the

birds flew away in terror, and the Argonauts were enabled to land with

safety on the island.

Here they found four shipwrecked youths, who proved to be the sons of

Phryxus, and were greeted by Jason as his cousins. On ascertaining the

object of the expedition they volunteered to accompany the Argo, and to

show the heroes the way to Colchis. They also informed them that the Golden

Fleece was guarded by a fearful dragon, that king Aetes was extremely

cruel, and, as the son of Apollo, was possessed of superhuman strength.

ARRIVAL AT COLCHIS.--Taking with them the four new-comers they journeyed

on, and soon came in sight of the snow-capped peaks of the Caucasus, when,

towards evening, the loud flapping of wings was heard overhead. It was the

giant eagle of Prometheus on his way to torture the noble and

long-suffering Titan, whose fearful groans soon afterwards fell upon their

ears. That night they reached their journey's end, and anchored in the

smooth waters of the river Phases. On the left bank of this river they

beheld Ceuta, the capital of Colchis; and on their right a wide field, and

the sacred grove of Ares, where the Golden Fleece, suspended from a

magnificent oak-tree, was glittering in the sun. Jason now filled a golden

cup with wine, and offered a libation to mother-earth, the gods of the

country, and the shades of those of the heroes who had died on the voyage.

Next morning a council was held, in which it was decided, that before

resorting to forcible measures kind and conciliatory overtures should first

be made to king Aetes in order to induce him to resign the Golden Fleece.

It was arranged that Jason, with a few chosen companions, should proceed to

the royal castle, leaving the remainder of the crew to guard the Argo.

Accompanied, therefore, by Telamon and Augeas, and the four sons of

Phryxus, he set out for the palace.

When they arrived in sight of the castle they were struck by the vastness

and massiveness of the building, at the entrance to which sparkling

fountains played in {223} the midst of luxuriant and park-like gardens.

Here the king's daughters, Chalciope and Medea, who were walking in the

grounds of the palace, met them. The former, to her great joy, recognized

in the youths who accompanied the hero her own long-lost sons, whom she had

mourned as dead, whilst the young and lovely Medea was struck with the

noble and manly form of Jason.

The news of the return of the sons of Phryxus soon spread through the

palace, and brought Aetes himself to the scene, whereupon the strangers

were presented to him, and were invited to a banquet which the king ordered

to be prepared in their honour. All the most beautiful ladies of the court

were present at this entertainment; but in the eyes of Jason none could

compare with the king's daughter, the young and lovely Medea.

When the banquet was ended, Jason related to the king his various

adventures, and also the object of his expedition, with the circumstances

which had led to his undertaking it. Aetes listened, in silent indignation,

to this recital, and then burst out into a torrent of invectives against

the Argonauts and his grand-children, declaring that the Fleece was his

rightful property, and that on no consideration would he consent to

relinquish it. Jason, however, with mild and persuasive words, contrived so

far to conciliate him, that he was induced to promise that if the heroes

could succeed in demonstrating their divine origin by the performance of

some task requiring superhuman power, the Fleece should be theirs.

The task proposed by Aetes to Jason was that he should yoke the two

brazen-footed, fire-breathing oxen of the king (which had been made for him

by Hephaestus) to his ponderous iron plough. Having done this he must till

with them the stony field of Ares, and then sow in the furrows the

poisonous teeth of a dragon, from which armed men would arise. These he

must destroy to a man, or he himself would perish at their hands.

When Jason heard what was expected of him, his heart for a moment sank

within him; but he determined, nevertheless, not to flinch from his task,

but to trust to the {224} assistance of the gods, and to his own courage

and energy.

JASON PLOUGHS THE FIELD OF ARES.--Accompanied by his two friends, Telamon

and Augeas, and also by Argus, the son of Chalciope, Jason returned to the

vessel for the purpose of holding a consultation as to the best means of

accomplishing these perilous feats.

Argus explained to Jason all the difficulties of the superhuman task which

lay before him, and pronounced it as his opinion that the only means by

which success was possible was to enlist the assistance of the Princess

Medea, who was a priestess of Hecate, and a great enchantress. His

suggestion meeting with approval, he returned to the palace, and by the aid

of his mother an interview was arranged between Jason and Medea, which took

place, at an early hour next morning, in the temple of Hecate.

A confession of mutual attachment took place, and Medea, trembling for her

lover's safety, presented him with a magic salve, which possessed the

property of rendering any person anointed with it invulnerable for the

space of one day against fire and steel, and invincible against any

adversary however powerful. With this salve she instructed him to anoint

his spear and shield on the day of his great undertaking. She further added

that when, after having ploughed the field and sown the teeth, armed men

should arise from the furrows, he must on no account lose heart, but

remember to throw among them a huge rock, over the possession of which they

would fight among themselves, and their attention being thus diverted he

would find it an easy task to destroy them. Overwhelmed with gratitude,

Jason thanked her, in the most earnest manner, for her wise counsel and

timely aid; at the same time he offered her his hand, and promised her he

would not return to Greece without taking her with him as his wife.

Next morning Aetes, in all the pomp of state, surrounded by his family and

the members of his court, {225} repaired to a spot whence a full view of

the approaching spectacle could be obtained. Soon Jason appeared in the

field of Ares, looking as noble and majestic as the god of war himself. In

a distant part of the field the brazen yokes and the massive plough met his

view, but as yet the dread animals themselves were nowhere to be seen. He

was about to go in quest of them, when they suddenly rushed out from a

subterranean cave, breathing flames of fire, and enveloped in a thick

smoke.

The friends of Jason trembled; but the undaunted hero, relying on the magic

powers with which he was imbued by Medea, seized the oxen, one after the

other, by the horns, and forced them to the yoke. Near the plough was a

helmet full of dragon's teeth, which he sowed as he ploughed the field,

whilst with sharp pricks from his lance he compelled the monstrous

creatures to draw the plough over the stony ground, which was thus speedily

tilled.

While Jason was engaged sowing the dragon's teeth in the deep furrows of

the field, he kept a cautious look-out lest the germinating giant brood

might grow too quickly for him, and as soon as the four acres of land had

been tilled he unyoked the oxen, and succeeded in frightening them so

effectually with his weapons, that they rushed back in terror to their

subterranean stables. Meanwhile armed men had sprung up out of the furrows,

and the whole field now bristled with lances; but Jason, remembering the

instructions of Medea, seized an immense rock and hurled it into the midst

of these earth-born warriors, who immediately began to attack each other.

Jason then rushed furiously upon them, and after a terrible struggle not

one of the giants remained alive.

Furious at seeing his murderous schemes thus defeated, Aetes not only

perfidiously refused to give Jason the Fleece which he had so bravely

earned, but, in his anger, determined to destroy all the Argonauts, and to

burn their vessel.

JASON SECURES THE GOLDEN FLEECE.--Becoming aware of the treacherous designs

of her father, Medea at {226} once took measures to baffle them. In the

darkness of night she went on board the Argo, and warned the heroes of

their approaching danger. She then advised Jason to accompany her without

loss of time to the sacred grove, in order to possess himself of the

long-coveted treasure. They set out together, and Medea, followed by Jason,

led the way, and advanced boldly into the grove. The tall oak-tree was soon

discovered, from the topmost boughs of which hung the beautiful Golden

Fleece. At the foot of this tree, keeping his ever-wakeful watch, lay the

dreadful, sleepless dragon, who at sight of them bounded forward, opening

his huge jaws.

Medea now called into play her magic powers, and quietly approaching the

monster, threw over him a few drops of a potion, which soon took effect,

and sent him into a deep sleep; whereupon Jason, seizing the opportunity,

climbed the tree and secured the Fleece. Their perilous task being now

accomplished, Jason and Medea quitted the grove, and hastened on board the

Argo, which immediately put to sea.

MURDER OF ABSYRTUS.--Meanwhile Aetes, having discovered the loss of his

daughter and the Golden Fleece, despatched a large fleet, under the command

of his son Absyrtus, in pursuit of the fugitives. After some days' sail

they arrived at an island at the mouth of the river Ister, where they found

the Argo at anchor, and surrounded her with their numerous ships. They then

despatched a herald on board of her, demanding the surrender of Medea and

the Fleece.

Medea now consulted Jason, and, with his consent, carried out the following

stratagem. She sent a message to her brother Absyrtus, to the effect that

she had been carried off against her will, and promised that if he would

meet her, in the darkness of night, in the temple of Artemis, she would

assist him in regaining possession of the Golden Fleece. Relying on the

good faith of his sister, Absyrtus fell into the snare, and duly appeared

at the appointed trysting-place; and whilst Medea kept her {227} brother

engaged in conversation, Jason rushed forward and slew him. Then, according

to a preconcerted signal, he held aloft a lighted torch, whereupon the

Argonauts attacked the Colchians, put them to flight, and entirely defeated

them.

The Argonauts now returned to their ship, when the prophetic board from the

Dodonean oak thus addressed them: "The cruel murder of Absyrtus was

witnessed by the Erinyes, and you will not escape the wrath of Zeus until

the goddess Circe has purified you from your crime. Let Castor and Pollux

pray to the gods that you may be enabled to find the abode of the

sorceress." In obedience to the voice, the twin-brothers invoked divine

assistance, and the heroes set out in search of the isle of Circe.

THEY ARRIVE AT THE ISLAND OF CIRCE.--The good ship Argo sped on her way,

and, after passing safely through the foaming waters of the river Eridanus,

at length arrived in the harbour of the island of Circe, where she cast

anchor.

Commanding his companions to remain on board, Jason landed with Medea, and

conducted her to the palace of the sorceress. The goddess of charms and

magic arts received them kindly, and invited them to be seated; but instead

of doing so they assumed a supplicating attitude, and humbly besought her

protection. They then informed her of the dreadful crime which they had

committed, and implored her to purify them from it. This Circe promised to

do. She forthwith commanded her attendant Naiads to kindle the fire on the

altar, and to prepare everything necessary for the performance of the

mystic rites, after which a dog was sacrificed, and the sacred cakes were

burned. Having thus duly purified the criminals, she severely reprimanded

them for the horrible murder of which they had been guilty; whereupon

Medea, with veiled head, and weeping bitterly, was reconducted by Jason to

the Argo.

FURTHER ADVENTURES OF THE ARGONAUTS.--Having left the island of Circe they

were wafted by gentle {228} zephyrs towards the abode of the Sirens, whose

enticing strains soon fell upon their ears. The Argonauts, powerfully

affected by the melody, were making ready to land, when Orpheus perceived

the danger, and, to the accompaniment of his magic lyre, commenced one of

his enchanting songs, which so completely absorbed his listeners that they

passed the island in safety; but not before Butes, one of their number,

lured by the seductive music of the Sirens, had sprung from the vessel into

the waves below. Aphrodite, however, in pity for his youth, landed him

gently on the island of Libibaon before the Sirens could reach him, and

there he remained for many years.

And now the Argonauts approached new dangers, for on one side of them

seethed and foamed the whirlpool of Charybdis, whilst on the other towered

the mighty rock whence the monster Scylla swooped down upon unfortunate

mariners; but here the goddess Hera came to their assistance, and sent to

them the sea-nymph Thetis, who guided them safely through these dangerous

straits.

The Argo next arrived at the island of the Phaeaces, where they were

hospitably entertained by King Alcinous and his queen Arete. But the

banquet prepared for them by their kind host was unexpectedly interrupted

by the appearance of a large army of Colchians, sent by Aetes to demand the

restoration of his daughter.

Medea threw herself at the feet of the queen, and implored her to save her

from the anger of her father, and Arete, in her kindness of heart, promised

her her protection. Next morning, in an assembly of the people at which the

Colchians were invited to be present, the latter were informed that as

Medea was the lawful wife of Jason they could not consent to deliver her

up; whereupon the Colchians, seeing that the resolution of the king was not

to be shaken, and fearing to face the anger of Aetes should they return to

Colchis without her, sought permission of Alcinous to settle in his

kingdom, which request was accorded them.

{229}

After these events the Argonauts once more set sail, and steered for

Iolcus; but, in the course of a terrible and fearful night, a mighty storm

arose, and in the morning they found themselves stranded on the treacherous

quicksands of Syrtes, on the shores of Libya. Here all was a waste and

barren desert, untenanted by any living creature, save the venomous snakes

which had sprung from the blood of the Medusa when borne by Perseus over

these arid plains.

They had already passed several days in this abode of desolation, beneath

the rays of the scorching sun, and had abandoned themselves to the deepest

despair, when the Libyan queen, who was a prophetess of divine origin,

appeared to Jason, and informed him that a sea-horse would be sent by the

gods to act as his guide.

Scarcely had she departed when a gigantic hippocamp was seen in the

distance, making its way towards the Argo. Jason now related to his

companions the particulars of his interview with the Libyan prophetess, and

after some deliberation it was decided to carry the Argo on their

shoulders, and to follow wherever the sea-horse should lead them. They then

commenced a long and weary journey through the desert, and at last, after

twelve days of severe toil and terrible suffering, the welcome sight of the

sea greeted their view. In gratitude for having been saved from their

manifold dangers they offered up sacrifices to the gods, and launched their

ship once more into the deep waters of the ocean.

ARRIVAL AT CRETE.--With heartfelt joy and gladness they proceeded on their

homeward voyage, and after some days arrived at the island of Crete, where

they purposed to furnish themselves with fresh provisions and water. Their

landing, however, was opposed by a terrible giant who guarded the island

against all intruders. This giant, whose name was Talus, was the last of

the Brazen race, and being formed of brass, was invulnerable, except in his

right ankle, where there was a sinew of flesh and a vein of blood. As he

saw the Argo {230} nearing the coast, he hurled huge rocks at her, which

would inevitably have sunk the vessel had not the crew beat a hasty

retreat. Although sadly in want of food and water, the Argonauts had

decided to proceed on their journey rather than face so powerful an

opponent, when Medea came forward and assured them that if they would trust

to her she would destroy the giant.

Enveloped in the folds of a rich purple mantle, she stepped on deck, and

after invoking the aid of the Fates, uttered a magic incantation, which had

the effect of throwing Talus into a deep sleep. He stretched himself at

full length upon the ground, and in doing so grazed his vulnerable ankle

against the point of a sharp rock, whereupon a mighty stream of blood

gushed forth from the wound. Awakened by the pain, he tried to rise, but in

vain, and with a mighty groan of anguish the giant fell dead, and his

enormous body rolled heavily over into the deep. The heroes being now able

to land, provisioned their vessel, after which they resumed their homeward

voyage.

ARRIVAL AT IOLCUS.--After a terrible night of storm and darkness they

passed the island of AEgina, and at length reached in safety the port of

Iolcus, where the recital of their numerous adventures and hair-breadth

escapes was listened to with wondering admiration by their

fellow-countrymen.

The Argo was consecrated to Poseidon, and was carefully preserved for many

generations till no vestige of it remained, when it was placed in the

heavens as a brilliant constellation.

On his arrival at Iolcus, Jason conducted his beautiful bride to the palace

of his uncle Pelias, taking with him the Golden Fleece, for the sake of

which this perilous expedition had been undertaken. But the old king, who

had never expected that Jason would return alive, basely refused to fulfil

his part of the compact, and declined to abdicate the throne.

{231}

Indignant at the wrongs of her husband, Medea avenged them in a most

shocking manner. She made friends with the daughters of the king, and

feigned great interest in all their concerns. Having gained their

confidence, she informed them, that among her numerous magic arts, she

possessed the power of restoring to the aged all the vigour and strength of

youth, and in order to give them a convincing proof of the truth of her

assertion, she cut up an old ram, which she boiled in a cauldron,

whereupon, after uttering various mystic incantations, there came forth

from the vessel a beautiful young lamb. She then assured them, that in a

similar manner they could restore to their old father his former youthful

frame and vigour. The fond and credulous daughters of Pelias lent an all

too willing ear to the wicked sorceress, and thus the old king perished at

the hands of his innocent children.

DEATH OF JASON.--Medea and Jason now fled to Corinth, where at length they

found, for a time, peace and tranquillity, their happiness being completed

by the birth of three children.

As time passed on, however, and Medea began to lose the beauty which had

won the love of her husband, he grew weary of her, and became attracted by

the youthful charms of Glauce, the beautiful daughter of Creon, king of

Corinth. Jason had obtained her father's consent to their union, and the

wedding-day was already fixed, before he disclosed to Medea the treachery

which he meditated against her. He used all his persuasive powers in order

to induce her to consent to his union with Glauce, assuring her that his

affection had in no way diminished, but that for the sake of the advantages

which would thereby accrue to their children, he had decided on forming

this alliance with the royal house. Though justly enraged at his deceitful

conduct, Medea dissembled her wrath, and, feigning to be satisfied with

this explanation, sent, as a wedding-gift to her rival, a magnificent robe

of cloth-of-gold. This robe was imbued with a deadly {232} poison which

penetrated to the flesh and bone of the wearer, and burned them as though

with a consuming fire. Pleased with the beauty and costliness of the

garment, the unsuspecting Glauce lost no time in donning it; but no sooner

had she done so than the fell poison began to take effect. In vain she

tried to tear the robe away; it defied all efforts to be removed, and after

horrible and protracted sufferings, she expired.

Maddened at the loss of her husband's love Medea next put to death her

three sons, and when Jason, thirsting for revenge, left the chamber of his

dead bride, and flew to his own house in search of Medea, the ghastly

spectacle of his murdered children met his view. He rushed frantically to

seek the murderess, but nowhere could she be found. At length, hearing a

sound above his head, he looked up, and beheld Medea gliding through the

air in a golden chariot drawn by dragons.

In a fit of despair Jason threw himself on his own sword, and perished on

the threshold of his desolate and deserted home.

PELOPS.

Pelops, the son of the cruel Tantalus, was a pious and virtuous prince.

After his father was banished into Tartarus, a war ensued between Pelops

and the king of Troy, in which the former was vanquished and forced to fly

from his dominions in Phrygia. He emigrated into Greece, where, at the

court of Oenomaus, king of Elis, he beheld Hippodamia, the king's daughter,

whose beauty won his heart. But an oracle having foretold to Oenomaus that

he would die on the day of his daughter's marriage, he threw every obstacle

in the way of her suitors, and declared that he would only give her to him

who succeeded in vanquishing him in a chariot race, but that all

unsuccessful competitors should suffer death at his hands.

The conditions of the contest were as follows:--The race was to be run from

a given point at Pisa to the altar of Poseidon at Corinth; the suitor was

allowed to start {233} on his course whilst Oenomaus performed his

sacrifice to Zeus, and only on its completion did the king mount his

chariot, guided by the skilful Myrtilus, and drawn by his two famous

horses, Phylla and Harpinna, who surpassed in swiftness the winds

themselves. In this manner many a gallant young prince had perished; for

although a considerable start was given to all competitors, still Oenomaus,

with his swift team, always overtook them before they reached the goal, and

killed them with his spear. But the love of Pelops for Hippodamia overcame

all fears, and, undeterred by the terrible fate of his predecessors, he

announced himself to Oenomaus as a suitor for the hand of his daughter.

On the eve of the race, Pelops repaired to the sea-shore and earnestly

implored Poseidon to assist him in his perilous undertaking. The sea-god

heard his prayer, and sent him out of the deep a chariot drawn by two

winged horses.

When Pelops appeared on the course, the king at once recognized the horses

of Poseidon; but, nothing daunted, he relied on his own supernatural team,

and the contest was allowed to proceed.

Whilst the king was offering his sacrifice to Zeus Pelops set out on the

race, and had nearly reached the goal, when, turning round, he beheld

Oenomaus, spear in hand, who, with his magic steeds, had nearly overtaken

him. But in this emergency Poseidon came to the aid of the son of Tantalus.

He caused the wheels of the royal chariot to fly off, whereupon the king

was thrown out violently, and killed on the spot, just as Pelops arrived at

the altar of Poseidon.

As the hero was about to return to Pisa to claim his bride, he beheld, in

the distance, flames issuing from the royal castle, which at that instant

had been struck by lightning. With his winged horses he flew to rescue his

lovely bride, and succeeded in extricating her uninjured from the burning

building. They soon afterwards became united, and Pelops reigned in Pisa

for many years in great splendour.

{234}

HERACLES (HERCULES).

Heracles, the most renowned hero of antiquity, was the son of Zeus and

Alcmene, and the great grandson of Perseus.

At the time of his birth Alcmene was living at Thebes with her husband

Amphitryon, and thus the infant Heracles was born in the palace of his

stepfather.

Aware of the animosity with which Hera persecuted all those who rivalled

her in the affections of Zeus, Alcmene, fearful lest this hatred should be

visited on her innocent child, intrusted him, soon after his birth, to the

care of a faithful servant, with instructions to expose him in a certain

field, and there leave him, feeling assured that the divine offspring of

Zeus would not long remain without the protection of the gods.

Soon after the child had been thus abandoned, Hera and Pallas-Athene

happened to pass by the field, and were attracted by its cries. Athene

pityingly took up the infant in her arms, and prevailed upon the queen of

heaven to put it to her breast; but no sooner had she done so, than the

child, causing her pain, she angrily threw him to the ground, and left the

spot. Athene, moved with compassion, carried him to Alcmene, and entreated

her kind offices on behalf of the poor little foundling. Alcmene at once

recognized her child, and joyfully accepted the charge.

Soon afterwards Hera, to her extreme annoyance, discovered whom she had

nursed, and became filled with jealous rage. She now sent two venomous

snakes into the chamber of Alcmene, which crept, unperceived by the nurses,

to the cradle of the sleeping child. He awoke with a cry, and grasping a

snake in each hand, strangled them both. Alcmene and her attendants, whom

the cry of the child had awakened, rushed to the cradle, where, to their

astonishment and terror, they beheld the two reptiles dead in the hands of

the infant Heracles. Amphitryon was also attracted to the chamber by the

{235} commotion, and when he beheld this astounding proof of supernatural

strength, he declared that the child must have been sent to him as a

special gift from Zeus. He accordingly consulted the famous seer Tiresias,

who now informed him of the divine origin of his stepson, and

prognosticated for him a great and distinguished future.

When Amphitryon heard the noble destiny which awaited the child intrusted

to his care, he resolved to educate him in a manner worthy of his future

career. At a suitable age he himself taught him how to guide a chariot;

Eurytus, how to handle the bow; Autolycus, dexterity in wrestling and

boxing; and Castor, the art of armed warfare; whilst Linus, the son of

Apollo, instructed him in music and letters.

Heracles was an apt pupil; but undue harshness was intolerable to his high

spirit, and old Linus, who was not the gentlest of teachers, one day

corrected him with blows, whereupon the boy angrily took up his lyre, and,

with one stroke of his powerful arm, killed his tutor on the spot.

Apprehensive lest the ungovernable temper of the youth might again involve

him in similar acts of violence, Amphitryon sent him into the country,

where he placed him under the charge of one of his most trusted herdsmen.

Here, as he grew up to manhood, his extraordinary stature and strength

became the wonder and admiration of all beholders. His aim, whether with

spear, lance, or bow, was unerring, and at the age of eighteen he was

considered to be the strongest as well as the most beautiful youth in all

Greece.

THE CHOICE OF HERACLES.--Heracles felt that the time had now arrived when

it became necessary to decide for himself how to make use of the

extraordinary powers with which he had been endowed by the gods; and in

order to meditate in solitude on this all-important subject, he repaired to

a lonely and secluded spot in the heart of the forest.

Here two females of great beauty appeared to him. {236} One was Vice, the

other Virtue. The former was full of artificial wiles and fascinating arts,

her face painted and her dress gaudy and attractive; whilst the latter was

of noble bearing and modest mien, her robes of spotless purity.

Vice stepped forward and thus addressed him: "If you will walk in my paths,

and make me your friend, your life shall be one round of pleasure and

enjoyment. You shall taste of every delight which can be procured on earth;

the choicest viands, the most delicious wines, the most luxuriant of

couches shall be ever at your disposal; and all this without any exertion

on your part, either physical or mental."

Virtue now spoke in her turn: "If you will follow me and be my friend, I

promise you the reward of a good conscience, and the love and respect of

your fellowmen. I cannot undertake to smooth your path with roses, or to

give you a life of idleness and pleasure; for you must know that the gods

grant no good and desirable thing that is not earned by labour; and as you

sow, so must you reap."

Heracles listened patiently and attentively to both speakers, and then,

after mature deliberation, decided to follow in the paths of virtue, and

henceforth to honour the gods, and to devote his life to the service of his

country.

Full of these noble resolves he sought once more his rural home, where he

was informed that on Mount Cithaeron, at the foot of which the herds of

Amphitryon were grazing, a ferocious lion had fixed his lair, and was

committing such frightful ravages among the flocks and herds that he had

become the scourge and terror of the whole neighbourhood. Heracles at once

armed himself and ascended the mountain, where he soon caught sight of the

lion, and rushing at him with his sword succeeded in killing him. The hide

of the animal he wore ever afterwards over his shoulders, and the head

served him as a helmet.

As he was returning from this, his first exploit, he met {237} the heralds

of Erginus, king of the Minyans, who were proceeding to Thebes to demand

their annual tribute of 100 oxen. Indignant at this humiliation of his

native city, Heracles mutilated the heralds, and sent them back, with ropes

round their necks, to their royal master.

Erginus was so incensed at the ill-treatment of his messengers that he

collected an army and appeared before the gates of Thebes, demanding the

surrender of Heracles. Creon, who was at this time king of Thebes, fearing

the consequences of a refusal, was about to yield, when the hero, with the

assistance of Amphitryon and a band of brave youths, advanced against the

Minyans.

Heracles took possession of a narrow defile through which the enemy were

compelled to pass, and as they entered the pass the Thebans fell upon them,

killed their king Erginus, and completely routed them. In this engagement

Amphitryon, the kind friend and foster-father of Heracles, lost his life.

The hero now advanced upon Orchomenus, the capital of the Minyans, where he

burned the royal castle and sacked the town.

After this signal victory all Greece rang with the fame of the young hero,

and Creon, in gratitude for his great services, bestowed upon him his

daughter Megara in marriage. The Olympian gods testified their appreciation

of his valour by sending him presents; Hermes gave him a sword,

Phoebus-Apollo a bundle of arrows, Hephaestus a golden quiver, and Athene a

coat of leather.

HERACLES AND EURYSTHEUS.--And now it will be necessary to retrace our

steps. Just before the birth of Heracles, Zeus, in an assembly of the gods,

exultingly declared that the child who should be born on that day to the

house of Perseus should rule over all his race. When Hera heard her lord's

boastful announcement she knew well that it was for the child of the hated

Alcmene that this brilliant destiny was designed; and in order to rob the

son of her rival of his rights, she called to her aid the goddess

Eilithyia, who retarded the birth of {238} Heracles, and caused his cousin

Eurystheus (another grandson of Perseus) to precede him into the world. And

thus, as the word of the mighty Zeus was irrevocable, Heracles became the

subject and servant of his cousin Eurystheus.

When, after his splendid victory over Erginus, the fame of Heracles spread

throughout Greece, Eurystheus (who had become king of Mycenae), jealous of

the reputation of the young hero, asserted his rights, and commanded him to

undertake for him various difficult tasks. But the proud spirit of the hero

rebelled against this humiliation, and he was about to refuse compliance,

when Zeus appeared to him and desired him not to rebel against the Fates.

Heracles now repaired to Delphi in order to consult the oracle, and

received the answer that after performing ten tasks for his cousin

Eurystheus his servitude would be at an end.

Soon afterwards Heracles fell into a state of the deepest melancholy, and

through the influence of his inveterate enemy, the goddess Hera, this

despondency developed into raving madness, in which condition he killed his

own children. When he at length regained his reason he was so horrified and

grieved at what he had done, that he shut himself up in his chamber and

avoided all intercourse with men. But in his loneliness and seclusion the

conviction that work would be the best means of procuring oblivion of the

past decided him to enter, without delay, upon the tasks appointed him by

Eurystheus.

1. THE NEMEAN LION.--His first task was to bring to Eurystheus the skin of

the much-dreaded Nemean lion, which ravaged the territory between Cleone

and Nemea, and whose hide was invulnerable against any mortal weapon.

Heracles proceeded to the forest of Nemea, where, having discovered the

lion's lair, he attempted to pierce him with his arrows; but finding these

of no avail he felled him to the ground with his club, and before the

animal had time to recover from the terrible blow, {239} Heracles seized

him by the neck and, with a mighty effort, succeeded in strangling him. He

then made himself a coat of mail of the skin, and a new helmet of the head

of the animal. Thus attired, he so alarmed Eurystheus by appearing suddenly

before him, that the king concealed himself in his palace, and henceforth

forbade Heracles to enter his presence, but commanded him to receive his

behests, for the future, through his messenger Copreus.

2. THE HYDRA.--His second task was to slay the Hydra, a monster serpent

(the offspring of Typhon and Echidna), bristling with nine heads, one of

which was immortal. This monster infested the neighbourhood of Lerna, where

she committed great depredations among the herds.

[Illustration]

Heracles, accompanied by his nephew Iolaus, set out in a chariot for the

marsh of Lerna, in the slimy waters of which he found her. He commenced the

attack by assailing her with his fierce arrows, in order to force her to

leave her lair, from which she at length emerged, and sought refuge in a

wood on a neighbouring hill. Heracles now rushed forward and endeavoured to

crush her heads by means of well-directed blows from his tremendous club;

but no sooner was one head destroyed than it was immediately replaced by

two others. He next seized the monster in his powerful grasp; but at this

juncture a giant crab came to the assistance of the Hydra and commenced

biting the feet of her assailant. Heracles destroyed this new adversary

with his club, and now called upon his nephew to come to his aid. At his

command Iolaus set fire to the neighbouring trees, {240} and, with a

burning branch, seared the necks of the monster as Heracles cut them off,

thus effectually preventing the growth of more. Heracles next struck off

the immortal head, which he buried by the road-side, and placed over it a

heavy stone. Into the poisonous blood of the monster he then dipped his

arrows, which ever afterwards rendered wounds inflicted by them incurable.

3. THE HORNED HIND.--The third labour of Heracles was to bring the horned

hind Cerunitis alive to Mycenae. This animal, which was sacred to Artemis,

had golden antlers and hoofs of brass.

Not wishing to wound the hind Heracles patiently pursued her through many

countries for a whole year, and overtook her at last on the banks of the

river Ladon; but even there he was compelled, in order to secure her, to

wound her with one of his arrows, after which he lifted her on his

shoulders and carried her through Arcadia. On his way he met Artemis with

her brother Phoebus-Apollo, when the goddess angrily reproved him for

wounding her favourite hind; but Heracles succeeded in appeasing her

displeasure, whereupon she permitted him to take the animal alive to

Mycenae.

[Illustration]

4. THE ERYMANTIAN BOAR.--The fourth task imposed upon Heracles by

Eurystheus was to bring alive to Mycenae the Erymantian boar, which had laid

waste the region of Erymantia, and was the scourge of the surrounding

neighbourhood.

On his way thither he craved food and shelter of a Centaur named Pholus,

who received him with generous hospitality, setting before him a good and

plentiful repast. When Heracles expressed his surprise that at such a

well-furnished board {241} wine should be wanting, his host explained that

the wine-cellar was the common property of all the Centaurs, and that it

was against the rules for a cask to be broached, except all were present to

partake of it. By dint of persuasion, however, Heracles prevailed on his

kind host to make an exception in his favour; but the powerful, luscious

odour of the good old wine soon spread over the mountains, and brought

large numbers of Centaurs to the spot, all armed with huge rocks and

fir-trees. Heracles drove them back with fire-brands, and then, following

up his victory, pursued them with his arrows as far as Malea, where they

took refuge in the cave of the kind old Centaur Chiron. Unfortunately,

however, as Heracles was shooting at them with his poisoned darts, one of

these pierced the knee of Chiron. When Heracles discovered that it was the

friend of his early days that he had wounded, he was overcome with sorrow

and regret. He at once extracted the arrow, and anointed the wound with a

salve, the virtue of which had been taught him by Chiron himself. But all

his efforts were unavailing. The wound, imbued with the deadly poison of

the Hydra, was incurable, and so great was the agony of Chiron that, at the

intercession of Heracles, death was sent him by the gods; for otherwise,

being immortal, he would have been doomed to endless suffering.

Pholus, who had so kindly entertained Heracles, also perished by means of

one of these arrows, which he had extracted from the body of a dead

Centaur. While he was quietly examining it, astonished that so small and

insignificant an object should be productive of such serious results, the

arrow fell upon his foot and fatally wounded him. Full of grief at this

untoward event, Heracles buried him with due honours, and then set out to

chase the boar.

With loud shouts and terrible cries he first drove him out of the thickets

into the deep snow-drifts which covered the summit of the mountain, and

then, having at length wearied him with his incessant pursuit, he captured

the exhausted animal, bound him with a rope, and brought him alive to

Mycenae.

{242}

5. CLEANSING THE STABLES OF AUGEAS.--After slaying the Erymantian boar

Eurystheus commanded Heracles to cleanse in one day the stables of Augeas.

Augeas was a king of Elis who was very rich in herds. Three thousand of his

cattle he kept near the royal palace in an inclosure where the refuse had

accumulated for many years. When Heracles presented himself before the

king, and offered to cleanse his stables in one day, provided he should

receive in return a tenth part of the herds, Augeas, thinking the feat

impossible, accepted his offer in the presence of his son Phyleus.

Near the palace were the two rivers Peneus and Alpheus, the streams of

which Heracles conducted into the stables by means of a trench which he dug

for this purpose, and as the waters rushed through the shed, they swept

away with them the whole mass of accumulated filth.

But when Augeas heard that this was one of the labours imposed by

Eurystheus, he refused the promised guerdon. Heracles brought the matter

before a court, and called Phyleus as a witness to the justice of his

claim, whereupon Augeas, without waiting for the delivery of the verdict,

angrily banished Heracles and his son from his dominions.

6. THE STYMPHALIDES.--The sixth task was to chase away the Stymphalides,

which were immense birds of prey who, as we have seen (in the legend of the

Argonauts), shot from their wings feathers sharp as arrows. The home of

these birds was on the shore of the lake Stymphalis, in Arcadia (after

which they were called), where they caused great destruction among men and

cattle.

On approaching the lake, Heracles observed great numbers of them; and,

while hesitating how to commence the attack, he suddenly felt a hand on his

shoulder. Looking round he beheld the majestic form of Pallas-Athene, who

held in her hand a gigantic pair of brazen clappers made by Hephaestus, with

which she {243} presented him; whereupon he ascended to the summit of a

neighbouring hill, and commenced to rattle them violently. The shrill noise

of these instruments was so intolerable to the birds that they rose into

the air in terror, upon which he aimed at them with his arrows, destroying

them in great numbers, whilst such as escaped his darts flew away, never to

return.

7. THE CRETAN BULL.--The seventh labour of Heracles was to capture the

Cretan bull.

Minos, king of Crete, having vowed to sacrifice to Poseidon any animal

which should first appear out of the sea, the god caused a magnificent bull

to emerge from the waves in order to test the sincerity of the Cretan king,

who, in making this vow, had alleged that he possessed no animal, among his

own herds, worthy the acceptance of the mighty sea-god. Charmed with the

splendid animal sent by Poseidon, and eager to possess it, Minos placed it

among his herds, and substituted as a sacrifice one of his own bulls.

Hereupon Poseidon, in order to punish the cupidity of Minos, caused the

animal to become mad, and commit such great havoc in the island as to

endanger the safety of the inhabitants. When Heracles, therefore, arrived

in Crete for the purpose of capturing the bull, Minos, far from opposing

his design, gladly gave him permission to do so.

The hero not only succeeded in securing the animal, but tamed him so

effectually that he rode on his back right across the sea as far as the

Peloponnesus. He now delivered him up to Eurystheus, who at once set him at

liberty, after which he became as ferocious and wild as before, roamed all

over Greece into Arcadia, and was eventually killed by Theseus on the

plains of Marathon.

8. THE MARES OF DIOMEDES.--The eighth labour of Heracles was to bring to

Eurystheus the mares of Diomedes, a son of Ares, and king of the

Bistonians, a warlike Thracian tribe. This king possessed a breed of wild

horses of tremendous size and strength, whose food consisted of human

flesh, and all strangers who had the {244} misfortune to enter the country

were made prisoners and flung before the horses, who devoured them.

When Heracles arrived he first captured the cruel Diomedes himself, and

then threw him before his own mares, who, after devouring their master,

became perfectly tame and tractable. They were then led by Heracles to the

sea-shore, when the Bistonians, enraged at the loss of their king, rushed

after the hero and attacked him. He now gave the animals in charge of his

friend Abderus, and made such a furious onslaught on his assailants that

they turned and fled.

But on his return from this encounter he found, to his great grief, that

the mares had torn his friend in pieces and devoured him. After celebrating

due funereal rites to the unfortunate Abderus, Heracles built a city in his

honour, which he named after him. He then returned to Tiryns, where he

delivered up the mares to Eurystheus, who set them loose on Mount Olympus,

where they became the prey of wild beasts.

It was after the performance of this task that Heracles joined the

Argonauts in their expedition to gain possession of the Golden Fleece, and

was left behind at Chios, as already narrated. During his wanderings he

undertook his ninth labour, which was to bring to Eurystheus the girdle of

Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons.

9. THE GIRDLE OF HIPPOLYTE.--The Amazons, who dwelt on the shores of the

Black Sea, near the river Thermodon, were a nation of warlike women,

renowned for their strength, courage, and great skill in horsemanship.

Their queen, Hippolyte, had received from her father, Ares, a beautiful

girdle, which she always wore as a sign of her royal power and authority,

and it was this girdle which Heracles was required to place in the hands of

Eurystheus, who designed it as a gift for his daughter Admete.

Foreseeing that this would be a task of no ordinary difficulty the hero

called to his aid a select band of brave companions, with whom he embarked

for the Amazonian {245} town Themiscyra. Here they were met by queen

Hippolyte, who was so impressed by the extraordinary stature and noble

bearing of Heracles that, on learning his errand, she at once consented to

present him with the coveted girdle. But Hera, his implacable enemy,

assuming the form of an Amazon, spread the report in the town that a

stranger was about to carry off their queen. The Amazons at once flew to

arms and mounted their horses, whereupon a battle ensued, in which many of

their bravest warriors were killed or wounded. Among the latter was their

most skilful leader, Melanippe, whom Heracles afterwards restored to

Hippolyte, receiving the girdle in exchange.

On his voyage home the hero stopped at Troy, where a new adventure awaited

him.

During the time that Apollo and Poseidon were condemned by Zeus to a

temporary servitude on earth, they built for king Laomedon the famous walls

of Troy, afterwards so renowned in history; but when their work was

completed the king treacherously refused to give them the reward due to

them. The incensed deities now combined to punish the offender. Apollo sent

a pestilence which decimated the people, and Poseidon a flood, which bore

with it a marine monster, who swallowed in his huge jaws all that came

within his reach.

In his distress Laomedon consulted an oracle, and was informed that only by

the sacrifice of his own daughter Hesione could the anger of the gods be

appeased. Yielding at length to the urgent appeals of his people he

consented to make the sacrifice, and on the arrival of Heracles the maiden

was already chained to a rock in readiness to be devoured by the monster.

When Laomedon beheld the renowned hero, whose marvellous feats of strength

and courage had become the wonder and admiration of all mankind, he

earnestly implored him to save his daughter from her impending fate, and to

rid the country of the monster, holding out to him as a reward the horses

which Zeus had presented to {246} his grandfather Tros in compensation for

robbing him of his son Ganymede.

Heracles unhesitatingly accepted the offer, and when the monster appeared,

opening his terrible jaws to receive his prey, the hero, sword in hand,

attacked and slew him. But the perfidious monarch once more broke faith,

and Heracles, vowing future vengeance, departed for Mycenae, where he

presented the girdle to Eurystheus.

10. THE OXEN OF GERYONES.--The tenth labour of Heracles was the capture of

the magnificent oxen belonging to the giant Geryon or Geryones, who dwelt

on the island of Erythia in the bay of Gadria (Cadiz). This giant, who was

the son of Chrysaor, had three bodies with three heads, six hands, and six

feet. He possessed a herd of splendid cattle, which were famous for their

size, beauty, and rich red colour. They were guarded by another giant named

Eurytion, and a two-headed dog called Orthrus, the offspring of Typhon and