On Horsemanship

Produced by John Bickers

ON HORSEMANSHIP

By Xenophon

Translation by H. G. Dakyns

Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a

pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans,

and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land

and property in Scillus, where he lived for many

years before having to move once more, to settle

in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C.

On Horsemanship advises the reader on how to buy

a good horse, and how to raise it to be either a

war horse or show horse. Xenophon ends with some

words on military equipment for a cavalryman.

PREPARER'S NOTE

This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a

four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though there is

doubt about some of these) is:

Work Number of books

The Anabasis 7

The Hellenica 7

The Cyropaedia 8

The Memorabilia 4

The Symposium 1

The Economist 1

On Horsemanship 1

The Sportsman 1

The Cavalry General 1

The Apology 1

On Revenues 1

The Hiero 1

The Agesilaus 1

The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2

Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into

English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The

diacritical marks have been lost.

ON HORSEMANSHIP

I

Claiming to have attained some proficiency in horsemanship (1)

ourselves, as the result of long experience in the field, our wish is to

explain, for the benefit of our younger friends, what we conceive to be

the most correct method of dealing with horses.

(1) Lit. "Since, through the accident of having for a long time

'ridden' ourselves, we believe we have become proficients in

horsemanship, we wish to show to our younger friends how, as we

conceive the matter, they will proceed most correctly in dealing

with horses." {ippeuein} in the case of Xenophon = serve as a

{ippeus}, whether technically as an Athenian "knight" or more

particularly in reference to his organisation of a troop of

cavalry during "the retreat" ("Anab." III. iii. 8-20), and, as is

commonly believed, while serving under Agesilaus ("Hell." III. iv.

14) in Asia, 396, 395 B.C.

There is, it is true, a treatise on horsemanship written by Simon, the

same who dedicated the bronze horse near the Eleusinion in Athens

(2) with a representation of his exploits engraved in relief on the

pedestal. (3) But we shall not on that account expunge from our treatise

any conclusions in which we happen to agree with that author; on the

contrary we shall hand them on with still greater pleasure to our

friends, in the belief that we shall only gain in authority from the

fact that so great an expert in horsemanship held similar views to our

own; whilst with regard to matters omitted in his treatise, we shall

endeavour to supply them.

(2) L. Dind. (in Athens). The Eleusinion. For the position of this

sanctuary of Demeter and Kore see Leake, "Top. of Athens," i. p.

296 foll. For Simon see Sauppe, vol. v. Praef. to "de R. E." p.

230; L. Dind. Praef. "Xen. Opusc." p. xx.; Dr. Morris H. Morgan,

"The Art of Horsemanship by Xenophon," p. 119 foll. A fragment of

the work referred to, {peri eidous kai ekloges ippon}, exists. The

MS. is in the library of Emmanual Coll. Cant. It so happens that

one of the hipparchs (?) appealed to by Demosthenes in Arist.

"Knights," 242.

{andres ippes, paragenesthe nun o kairos, o Simon, o Panaiti, ouk elate

pros to dexion keras};

bears the name.

(3) Lit. "and carved on the pedestal a representation of his own

performances."

As our first topic we shall deal with the question, how a man may best

avoid being cheated in the purchase of a horse.

Take the case of a foal as yet unbroken: it is plain that our scrutiny

must begin with the body; an animal that has never yet been mounted

can but present the vaguest indications of spirit. Confining ourselves

therefore to the body, the first point to examine, we maintain, will be

the feet. Just as a house would be of little use, however beautiful its

upper stories, if the underlying foundations were not what they ought

to be, so there is little use to be extracted from a horse, and in

particular a war-horse, (4) if unsound in his feet, however excellent

his other points; since he could not turn a single one of them to good

account. (5)

(4) Or, "and that a charger, we will suppose." For the simile see

"Mem." III. i. 7.

(5) Cf. Hor. "Sat." I. ii. 86:

regibus hic mos est: ubi equos mercantur, opertos inspiciunt, ne, si

facies, ut saepe, decora molli fulta pede est, emptorem inducat hiantem,

quod pulchrae clunes, breve quod caput, ardua cervix.

and see Virg. "Georg." iii. 72 foll.

In testing the feet the first thing to examine will be the horny portion

of the hoof. For soundness of foot a thick horn is far better than a

thin. Again it is important to notice whether the hoofs are high both

before and behind, or flat to the ground; for a high hoof keeps the

"frog," (6) as it is called, well off the ground; whereas a low hoof

treads equally with the stoutest and softest part of the foot alike,

the gait resembling that of a bandy-legged man. (7) "You may tell a good

foot clearly by the ring," says Simon happily; (8) for the hollow hoof

rings like a cymbal against the solid earth. (9)

(6) Lit. "the swallow."

(7) Al. "a knock-kneed person." See Stonehenge, "The Horse" (ed.

1892), pp. 3, 9.

(8) Or, "and he is right."

(9) Cf. Virg. "Georg." iii. 88; Hor. "Epod." xvi. 12.

And now that we have begun with the feet, let us ascend from this point

to the rest of the body. The bones (10) above the hoof and below the

fetlock must not be too straight, like those of a goat; through not

being properly elastic, (11) legs of this type will jar the rider, and

are more liable to become inflamed. On the other hand, these bones must

not be too low, or else the fetlock will be abraded or lacerated when

the horse is galloped over clods and stones.

(10) i.e. "the pasterns ({mesokunia}) and the coffin should be

'sloping.'"

(11) Or, "being too inflexible." Lit. "giving blow for blow, overuch

like anvil to hammer."

The bones of the shanks (12) ought to be thick, being as they are the

columns on which the body rests; thick in themselves, that is, not

puffed out with veins or flesh; or else in riding over hard ground they

will inevitably be surcharged with blood, and varicose conditions be set

up, (13) the legs becoming thick and puffy, whilst the skin recedes; and

with this loosening of the skin the back sinew (14) is very apt to start

and render the horse lame.

(12) i.e. "the metacarpals and metatarsals."

(13) Or, "and become varicose, with the result that the shanks swell

whilst the skin recedes from the bone."

(14) Or, "suspensory ligament"? Possibly Xenophon's anatomy is wrong,

and he mistook the back sinew for a bone like the fibula. The part

in question might intelligibly enough, if not technically, be

termed {perone}, being of the brooch-pin order.

If the young horse in walking bends his knees flexibly, you may safely

conjecture that when he comes to be ridden he will have flexible legs,

since the quality of suppleness invariably increases with age. (15)

Supple knees are highly esteemed and with good reason, rendering as

they do the horse less liable to stumble or break down from fatigue than

those of stiffer build.

(15) Lit. "all horses bend their legs more flexibly as time advances."

Coming to the thighs below the shoulder-blades, (16) or arms, these if

thick and muscular present a stronger and handsomer appearance, just

as in the case of a human being. Again, a comparatively broad chest is

better alike for strength and beauty, and better adapted to carry the

legs well asunder, so that they will not overlap and interfere with one

another. Again, the neck should not be set on dropping forward from the

chest, like a boar's, but, like that of a game-cock rather, it should

shoot upwards to the crest, and be slack (17) along the curvature;

whilst the head should be bony and the jawbone small. In this way the

neck will be well in front of the rider, and the eye will command what

lies before the horse's feet. A horse, moreover, of this build, however

spirited, will be least capable of overmastering the rider, (18) since

it is not by arching but by stretching out his neck and head that a

horse endeavours to assert his power. (19)

(16) Lit. "the thighs below the shoulder-blades" are distinguished

from "the thighs below the tail." They correspond respectively to

our "arms" (i.e. forearms) and "gaskins," and anatomically

speaking = the radius (os brachii) and the tibia.

(17) "Slack towards the flexure" (Stonehenge).

(18) Or, "of forcing the rider's hand and bolting."

(19) Or, "to display violence or run away."

It is important also to observe whether the jaws are soft or hard on one

or other side, since as a rule a horse with unequal jaws (20) is liable

to become hard-mouthed on one side.

(20) Or, "whose bars are not equally sensitive."

Again, a prominent rather than a sunken eye is suggestive of alertness,

and a horse of this type will have a wider range of vision.

And so of the nostrils: a wide-dilated nostril is at once better than a

contracted one for respiration, and gives the animal a fiercer aspect.

Note how, for instance, when one stallion is enraged against another, or

when his spirit chafes in being ridden, (21) the nostrils at once become

dilated.

(21) Or, "in the racecourse or on the exercising-ground how readily he

distends his nostrils."

A comparatively large crest and small ears give a more typical and

horse-like appearance to the head, whilst lofty withers again allow the

rider a surer seat and a stronger adhesion between the shoulders and the

body. (22)

(22) Or if with L. D. ({kai to somati}), transl. "adhesion to the

horse's shoulders."

A "double spine," (23) again, is at once softer to sit on than a single,

and more pleasing to the eye. So, too, a fairly deep side somewhat

rounded towards the belly (24) will render the animal at once easier to

sit and stronger, and as a general rule better able to digest his food.

(25)

(23) Reading after Courier {rakhis ge men}. See Virg. "Georg." iii.

87, "at duplex agitur per lumbos spina." "In a horse that is in

good case, the back is broad, and the spine does not stick up like

a ridge, but forms a kind of furrow on the back" (John Martyn); "a

full back," as we say.

(24) Or, "in proportion to." See Courier ("Du Commandement de la

Cavalerie at de l'Equitation": deux livres de Xenophon, traduits

par un officier d'artillerie a cheval), note ad loc. p. 83.

(25) i.e. "and keep in good condition."

The broader and shorter the loins the more easily will the horse raise

his forequarters and bring up his hindquarters under him. Given these

points, moreover, the belly will appear as small as possible, a portion

of the body which if large is partly a disfigurement and partly tends to

make the horse less strong and capable of carrying weight. (26)

(26) Al. "more feeble at once and ponderous in his gait."

The quarters should be broad and fleshy in correspondence with the sides

and chest, and if they are also firm and solid throughout they will be

all the lighter for the racecourse, and will render the horse in every

way more fleet.

To come to the thighs (and buttocks): (27) if the horse have these

separated by a broad line of demarcation (28) he will be able to plant

his hind-legs under him with a good gap between; (29) and in so doing

will assume a posture (30) and a gait in action at once prouder and more

firmly balanced, and in every way appear to the best advantage.

(27) Lit. "the thighs beneath the tail."

(28) Reading {plateia to gramme diorismenous ekhe}, sc. the perineum.

Al. Courier (after Apsyrtus), op. cit. p. 14, {plateis te kai me

diestrammenous}, "broad and not turned outwards."

(29) Or, "he will be sure to spread well behind," etc.

(30) {ton upobasin}, tech. of the crouching posture assumed by the

horse for mounting or "in doing the demi-passade" (so Morgan, op.

cit. p. 126).

The human subject would seem to point to this conclusion. When a

man wants to lift anything from off the ground he essays to do so by

bringing the legs apart and not by bringing them together.

A horse ought not to have large testicles, though that is not a point to

be determined in the colt.

And now, as regards the lower parts, the hocks, (31) or shanks and

fetlocks and hoofs, we have only to repeat what has been said already

about those of the fore-legs.

(31) {ton katothen astragelon, e knemon}, lit. "the under (or hinder?)

knuckle-bones (hocks?) or shins"; i.e. anatomically speaking, the

os calcis, astragalus, tarsals, and metatarsal large and small.

I will here note some indications by which one may forecast the probable

size of the grown animal. The colt with the longest shanks at the moment

of being foaled will grow into the biggest horse; the fact being--and it

holds of all the domestic quadrupeds (32)--that with advance of time the

legs hardly increase at all, while the rest of the body grows uniformly

up to these, until it has attained its proper symmetry.

(32) Cf. Aristot. "de Part. Anim." iv. 10; "H. A." ii. 1; Plin. "N.

H." xi. 108.

Such is the type (33) of colt and such the tests to be applied, with

every prospect of getting a sound-footed, strong, and fleshy animal

fine of form and large of stature. If changes in some instances develop

during growth, that need not prevent us from applying our tests in

confidence. It far more often happens that an ugly-looking colt will

turn out serviceable, (34) than that a foal of the above description

will turn out ugly or defective.

(33) Lit. "by testing the shape of the colt in this way it seems to us

the purchaser will get," etc.

(34) For the vulg. {eukhroastoi}, a doubtful word = "well coloured,"

i.e. "sleek and healthy," L. & S. would read {eukhrooi} (cf. "Pol.

Lac." v. 8). L. Dind. conj. {enrostoi}, "robust"; Schneid.

{eukhrestoi}, "serviceable."

II

The right method of breaking a colt needs no description at our hands.

(1) As a matter of state organisation, (2) cavalry duties usually

devolve upon those who are not stinted in means, and who have a

considerable share in the government; (3) and it seems far better for

a young man to give heed to his own health of body and to horsemanship,

or, if he already knows how to ride with skill, to practising manoeuvres,

than that he should set up as a trainer of horses. (4) The older man has

his town property and his friends, and the hundred-and-one concerns of

state or of war, on which to employ his time and energies rather than on

horsebreaking. It is plain then that any one holding my views (5) on

the subject will put a young horse out to be broken. But in so doing he

ought to draw up articles, just as a father does when he apprentices his

son to some art or handicraft, stating what sort of knowledge the

young creature is to be sent back possessed of. These will serve as

indications (6) to the trainer what points he must pay special heed to

if he is to earn his fee. At the same time pains should be taken on

the owner's part to see that the colt is gentle, tractable, and

affectionate, (7) when delivered to the professional trainer. That is a

condition of things which for the most part may be brought about at home

and by the groom--if he knows how to let the animal connect (8) hunger

and thirst and the annoyance of flies with solitude, whilst associating

food and drink and escape from sources of irritation with the presence

of man. As the result of this treatment, necessarily the young horse

will acquire--not fondness merely, but an absolute craving for human

beings. A good deal can be done by touching, stroking, patting those

parts of the body which the creature likes to have so handled. These

are the hairiest parts, or where, if there is anything annoying him, the

horse can least of all apply relief himself.

(1) Or, "The training of the colt is a topic which, as it seems to us,

may fairly be omitted, since those appointed for cavalry service

in these states are persons who," etc. For reading see Courier,

"Notes," p. 84.

(2) "Organisation in the several states."

(3) Or, "As a matter of fact it is the wealthiest members of the

state, and those who have the largest stake in civic life, that

are appointed to cavalry duties." See "Hippparch," i. 9.

(4) Cf. "Econ." iii. 10.

(5) {ego}. Hitherto the author has used the plural {emin} with which

he started.

(6) Reading {upodeigmata}, "finger-post signs," as it were, or "draft

in outline"; al. {upomnemata} = "memoranda."

(7) "Gentle, and accustomed to the hand, and fond of man."

(8) Lit. "if he knows how to provide that hunger and thirst, etc.,

should be felt by the colt in solitude, whilst food and drink,

etc., come through help of man."

The groom should have standing orders to take his charge through crowds,

and to make him familiar with all sorts of sights and noises; and if the

colt shows sign of apprehension at them, (9) he must teach him--not by

cruel, but by gentle handling--that they are not really formidable.

(9) Or, "is disposed to shy."

On this topic, then, of training, (10) the rules here given will, I

think, suffice for any private individual.

(10) Or, "In reference to horsebreaking, the above remarks will

perhaps be found sufficient for the practical guidance of an

amateur."

III

To meet the case in which the object is to buy a horse already fit

for riding, we will set down certain memoranda, (1) which, if applied

intelligently, may save the purchaser from being cheated.

(1) "Which the purchaser should lay to heart, if he does not wish to

be cheated."

First, then, let there be no mistake about the age. If the horse

has lost his mark teeth, (2) not only will the purchaser's hopes be

blighted, but he may find himself saddled for ever with a sorry bargain.

(3)

(2) Or, "the milk teeth," i.e. is more than five years old. See

Morgan, p. 126.

(3) Lit. "a horse that has lost his milk teeth cannot be said to

gladden his owner's mind with hopes, and is not so easily disposed

of."

Given that the fact of youth is well established, let there be no

mistake about another matter: how does he take the bit into his mouth

and the headstall (4) over his ears? There need be little ambiguity

on this score, if the purchaser will see the bit inserted and again

removed, under his eyes. Next, let it be carefully noted how the horse

stands being mounted. Many horses are extremely loath to admit the

approach of anything which, if once accepted, clearly means to them

enforced exertion.

(4) {koruphaia}, part of the {khalinos} gear.

Another point to ascertain is whether the horse, when mounted, can be

induced to leave other horses, or when being ridden past a group of

horses standing, will not bolt off to join the company. Some

horses again, as the result of bad training, will run away from the

exercising-ground and make for the stable. A hard mouth may be detected

by the exercise called the {pede} or volte, (5) and still more so by

varying the direction of the volte to right or left. Many horses will

not attempt to run away except for the concurrence of a bad mouth along

with an avenue of escape home. (6)

(5) See Sturz, s.v.; Pollux, i. 219. Al. "the longe," but the passage

below (vii. 14) is suggestive rather of the volte.

(6) Al. "will only attempt to bolt where the passage out towards home

combines, as it were, with a bad mouth." {e... ekphora} = "the

exit from the manege or riding school."

Another point which it is necessary to learn is, whether when let go at

full speed the horse can be pulled up (7) sharp and is willing to wheel

round in obedience to the rein.

(7) {analambanetai}, "come to the poise" (Morgan). For

{apostrephesthai} see ix.6; tech. "caracole."

It is also well to ascertain by experience if the horse you propose to

purchase will show equal docility in response to the whip. Every one

knows what a useless thing a servant is, or a body of troops, that will

not obey. A disobedient horse is not only useless, but may easily play

the part of an arrant traitor.

And since it is assumed that the horse to be purchased is intended for

war, we must widen our test to include everything which war itself can

bring to the proof: such as leaping ditches, scrambling over walls,

scaling up and springing off high banks. We must test his paces by

galloping him up and down steep pitches and sharp inclines and along a

slant. For each and all of these will serve as a touchstone to gauge the

endurance of his spirit and the soundness of his body.

I am far from saying, indeed, that because an animal fails to perform

all these parts to perfection, he must straightway be rejected; since

many a horse will fall short at first, not from inability, but from want

of experience. With teaching, practice, and habit, almost any horse will

come to perform all these feats beautifully, provided he be sound and

free from vice. Only you must beware of a horse that is naturally of a

nervous temperament. An over-timorous animal will not only prevent the

rider from using the vantage-ground of its back to strike an enemy, but

is as likely as not to bring him to earth himself and plunge him into

the worst of straits.

We must, also, find out of the horse shows any viciousness towards other

horses or towards human beings; also, whether he is skittish; (8) such

defects are apt to cause his owner trouble.

(8) Or, "very ticklish."

As to any reluctance on the horse's part to being bitted or mounted,

dancing and twisting about and the rest, (9) you will get a more exact

idea on this score, if, when he has gone through his work, you will try

and repeat the precise operations which he went through before you began

your ride. Any horse that having done his work shows a readiness to

undergo it all again, affords sufficient evidence thereby of spirit and

endurance.

(9) Reading {talla dineumata}, lit. "and the rest of his twistings and

twirlings about."

To put the matter in a nutshell: given that the horse is sound-footed,

gentle, moderately fast, willing and able to undergo toil, and above all

things (10) obedient--such an animal, we venture to predict, will

give the least trouble and the greatest security to his rider in the

circumstances of war; while, conversely, a beast who either out of

sluggishness needs much driving, or from excess of mettle much coaxing

and manoeuvering, will give his rider work enough to occupy both his hands

and a sinking of the heart when dangers thicken.

(10) Al. "thoroughly."

IV

We will now suppose the purchaser has found a horse which he admires;

(1) the purchase is effected, and he has brought him home--how is he to

be housed? It is best that the stable should be placed in a quarter

of the establishment where the master will see the horse as often as

possible. (2) It is a good thing also to have his stall so arranged that

there will be as little risk of the horse's food being stolen from the

manger, as of the master's from his larder or store-closet. To neglect

a detail of this kind is surely to neglect oneself; since in the hour of

danger, it is certain, the owner has to consign himself, life and limb,

to the safe keeping of his horse.

(1) Lit. "To proceed: when you have bought a horse which you admire

and have brought him home."

(2) i.e. "where he will be brought as frequently as possible under the

master's eye." Cf. "Econ." xii. 20.

Nor is it only to avoid the risk of food being stolen that a secure

horse-box is desirable, but for the further reason that if the horse

takes to scattering his food, the action is at once detected; and any

one who observes that happening may take it as a sign and symptom

either of too much blood, (3) which calls for veterinary aid, or of

over-fatigue, for which rest is the cure, or else that an attack of

indigestion (4) or some other malady is coming on. And just as with

human beings, so with the horse, all diseases are more curable at their

commencement (5) than after they have become chronic, or been wrongly

treated. (6)

(3) "A plethoric condition of the blood."

(4) {krithiasis}. Lit. "barley surfeit"; "une fourbure." See Aristot.

"H. A." viii. 24. 4.

(5) i.e. "in the early acute stages."

(6) Al. "and the mischief has spread."

But if food and exercise with a view to strengthening the horse's body

are matters of prime consideration, no less important is it to pay

attention to the feet. A stable with a damp and smooth floor will spoil

the best hoof which nature can give. (7) To prevent the floor being

damp, it should be sloped with channels; and to avoid smoothness, paved

with cobble stones sunk side by side in the ground and similar in size

to the horse's hoofs. (8) A stable floor of this sort is calculated

to strengthen the horse's feet by the mere pressure on the part in

standing. In the next place it will be the groom's business to lead out

the horse somewhere to comb and curry him; and after his morning's feed

to unhalter him from the manger, (9) so that he may come to his evening

meal with greater relish. To secure the best type of stable-yard, and

with a view to strengthening the horse's feet, I would suggest to take

and throw down loosely (10) four or five waggon loads of pebbles, each

as large as can be grasped in the hand, and about a pound in weight; the

whole to be fenced round with a skirting of iron to prevent scattering.

The mere standing on these will come to precisely the same thing as if

for a certain portion of the day the horse were, off and on, stepping

along a stony road; whilst being curried or when fidgeted by flies he

will be forced to use his hoofs just as much as if he were walking. Nor

is it the hoofs merely, but a surface so strewn with stones will tend to

harden the frog of the foot also.

(7) Lit. "A damp and smooth floor may be the ruin of a naturally good

hoof." It will be understood that the Greeks did not shoe their

horses.

(8) See Courier, p. 54, for an interesting experiment tried by himself

at Bari.

(9) Cf. "Hipparch," i. 16.

(10) Or, "spread so as to form a surface."

But if care is needed to make the hoofs hard, similar pains should be

taken to make the mouth and jaws soft; and the same means and appliances

which will render a man's flesh and skin soft, will serve to soften and

supple a horse's mouth. (11)

(11) Or, "may be used with like effect on a horse's mouth," i.e.

bathing, friction, oil. See Pollux, i. 201.

V

It is the duty of a horseman, as we think, to have his groom trained

thoroughly in all that concerns the treatment of the horse. In the first

place, then, the groom should know that he is never to knot the halter

(1) at the point where the headstall is attached to the horse's head. By

constantly rubbing his head against the manger, if the halter does not

sit quite loose about his ears, the horse will be constantly injuring

himself; (2) and with sores so set up, it is inevitable that he should

show peevishness, while being bitted or rubbed down.

(1) Lit. "by which the horse is tied to the manger"; "licol d'ecurie."

(2) Al. "in nine cases out of ten he rubs his head... and ten to

one will make a sore."

It is desirable that the groom should be ordered to carry out the dung

and litter of the horse to some one place each day. By so doing, he will

discharge the duty with least trouble to himself, (3) and at the same

time be doing the horse a kindness.

(3) Al. "get rid of the refuse in the easiest way."

The groom should also be instructed to attach the muzzle to the horse's

mouth, both when taking him out to be groomed and to the rolling-ground.

(4) In fact he should always muzzle him whenever he takes him anywhere

without the bit. The muzzle, while it is no hindrance to respiration,

prevents biting; and when attached it serves to rob the horse of

opportunity for vice. (5)

(4) Cf. "Econ." xi. 18; Aristoph. "Clouds," 32.

(5) Or, "prevents the horse from carrying out vicious designs."

Again, care should be taken to tie the horse up with the halter above

his head. A horse's natural instinct, in trying to rid himself of

anything that irritates the face, is to toss up his head, and by this

upward movement, if so tied, he only slackens the chain instead of

snapping it. In rubbing the horse down, the groom should begin with the

head and mane; as until the upper parts are clean, it is vain to cleanse

the lower; then, as regards the rest of the body, first brush up the

hair, by help of all the ordinary implements for cleansing, and then

beat out the dust, following the lie of the hair. The hair on the

spine (and dorsal region) ought not to be touched with any instrument

whatever; the hand alone should be used to rub and smooth it, and in the

direction of its natural growth, so as to preserve from injury that part

of the horse's back on which the rider sits.

The head should be drenched with water simply; for, being bony, if you

try to cleanse it with iron or wooden instruments injury may be caused.

So, too, the forelock should be merely wetted; the long hairs of which

it is composed, without hindering the animal's vision, serve to scare

away from the eyes anything that might trouble them. Providence, we must

suppose, (6) bestowed these hairs upon the horse, instead of the large

ears which are given to the ass and the mule as a protection to the

eyes. (7) The tail, again, and mane should be washed, the object being

to help the hairs to grow--those in the tail so as to allow the creature

the greatest reach possible in brushing away molesting objects, (8) and

those of the neck in order that the rider may have as free a grip as

possible.

(6) Lit. "The gods, we must suppose, gave..."

(7) Lit. "as defences or protective bulwarks."

(8) Insects, etc.

Mane, forelock, and tail are triple gifts bestowed by the gods upon the

horse for the sake of pride and ornament, (9) and here is the proof: a

brood mare, so long as her mane is long and flowing, will not readily

suffer herself to be covered by an ass; hence breeders of mules take

care to clip the mane of the mare with a view to covering. (10)

(9) {aglaias eneka} (a poetic word). Cf. "Od." xv. 78; xvii. 310.

(10) For this belief Schneid. cf Aristot. "H. A." vi. 18; Plin. viii.

42; Aelian, "H. A." ii. 10, xi. 18, xii. 16, to which Dr. Morgan

aptly adds Soph. "Fr." 587 (Tyro), a beautiful passage, {komes de

penthos lagkhano polou diken, k.t.l.} (cf. Plut. "Mor." 754 A).

Washing of the legs we are inclined to dispense with--no good is done

but rather harm to the hoofs by this daily washing. So, too, excessive

cleanliness of the belly is to be discouraged; the operation itself is

most annoying to the horse; and the cleaner these parts are made, the

thicker the swarm of troublesome things which collect beneath the belly.

Besides which, however elaborately you clean these parts, the horse is

no sooner led out than presently he will be just as dirty as if he had

not been cleaned. Omit these ablutions then, we say; and similarly for

the legs, rubbing and currying by hand is quite sufficient.

VI

We will now explain how the operation of grooming may be performed with

least danger to oneself and best advantage to the horse. If the groom

attempts to clean the horse with his face turned the same way as the

horse, he runs the risk of getting a knock in the face from the animal's

knee or hoof. When cleaning him he should turn his face in the opposite

direction to the horse, and planting himself well out of the way of his

leg, at an angle to his shoulder-blade, proceed to rub him down. He

will then escape all mischief, and he will be able to clean the frog by

folding back the hoof. Let him clean the hind-legs in the same way.

The man who has to do with the horse should know, with regard to this

and all other necessary operations, that he ought to approach as little

as possible from the head or the tail to perform them; for if the horse

attempt to show vice he is master of the man in front and rear. But by

approaching from the side he will get the greatest hold over the horse

with the least risk of injury to himself.

When the horse has to be led, we do not approve of leading him from in

front, for the simple reason that the person so leading him robs himself

of his power of self-protection, whilst he leaves the horse freedom to

do what he likes. On the other hand, we take a like exception to the

plan of training the horse to go forward on a long rein (1) and lead

the way, and for this reason: it gives the horse the opportunity of

mischief, in whichever direction he likes, on either flank, and the

power also to turn right about and face his driver. How can a troop

of horses be kept free of one another, if driven in this fashion from

behind?--whereas a horse accustomed to be led from the side will have

least power of mischief to horse or man, and at the same time be in the

best position to be mounted by the rider at a moment's notice, were it

necessary.

(1) See a passage from Strattis, "Chrys." 2 (Pollux, x. 55), {prosage

ton polon atrema, proslabon ton agogea brakhuteron. oukh oras oti

abolos estin}.

In order to insert the bit correctly the groom should, in the first

place, approach on the near (2) side of the horse, and then throwing

the reins over his head, let them drop loosely on the withers; raise the

headstall in his right hand, and with his left present the bit. If the

horse will take the bit, it is a simple business to adjust the strap of

the headstall; but if he refuses to open his mouth, the groom must hold

the bit against the teeth and at the same time insert the thumb (3)

of his left hand inside the horse's jaws. Most horses will open their

mouths to that operation. But if he still refuses, then the groom must

press the lip against the tush (4); very few horses will refuse the bit,

when that is done to them. (5)

(2) Lit. "on the left-hand side."

(3) {ton megan daktulon}, Hdt. iii. 8.

(4) i.e. "canine tooth."

(5) Or, "it is a very exceptional horse that will not open his mouth

under the circumstances."

The groom can hardly be too much alive to the following points * * * if

any work is to be done: (6) in fact, so important is it that the horse

should readily take his bit, that, to put it tersely, a horse that will

not take it is good for nothing. Now, if the horse be bitted not only

when he has work to do, but also when he is being taken to his food and

when he is being led home from a ride, it would be no great marvel if he

learnt to take the bit of his own accord, when first presented to him.

(6) Reading with L. Dind. {khre de ton ippokomon kai ta oiade...

paroxunthai, ei ti dei ponein}, or if as Schneid., Sauppe, etc.,

{khre de ton ippon me kata toiade, k.t.l.}, transl. "the horse

must not be irritated in such operations as these," etc.; but

{toiade} = "as follows," if correct, suggests a lacuna in either

case at this point.

It would be good for the groom to know how to give a leg up in the

Persian fashion, (7) so that in case of illness or infirmity of age

the master himself may have a man to help him on to horseback without

trouble, or, if he so wish, be able to oblige a friend with a man to

mount him. (8)

(7) Cf. "Anab." IV. iv. 4; "Hipparch," i. 17; "Cyrop." VII. i. 38.

(8) An {anaboleus}. Cf. Plut. "C. Gracch." 7.

The one best precept--the golden rule--in dealing with a horse is never

to approach him angrily. Anger is so devoid of forethought that it will

often drive a man to do things which in a calmer mood he will regret.

(9) Thus, when a horse is shy of any object and refuses to approach it,

you must teach him that there is nothing to be alarmed at, particularly

if he be a plucky animal; (10) or, failing that, touch the formidable

object yourself, and then gently lead the horse up to it. The opposite

plan of forcing the frightened creature by blows only intensifies its

fear, the horse mentally associating the pain he suffers at such a

moment with the object of suspicion, which he naturally regards as its

cause.

(9) Cf. "Hell." v. iii. 7 for this maxim.

(10) Al. "if possibly by help of another and plucky animal."

If, when the groom brings up the horse to his master to mount, he knows

how to make him lower his back, (11) to facilitate mounting, we have no

fault to find. Still, we consider that the horseman should practise and

be able to mount, even if the horse does not so lend himself; (12) since

on another occasion another type of horse may fall to the rider's lot,

(13) nor can the same rider be always served by the same equerry. (14)

(11) {upobibazesthai}. See above, i. 14; Pollux, i. 213; Morgan ad

loc. "Stirrups were unknown till long after the Christian era

began."

(12) Or, "apart from these good graces on the animal's part."

(13) As a member of the cavalry.

(14) Reading {allo}. Al. reading {allos} with L. D., "and the same

horse will at one time humour you in one way and again in

another." Cf. viii. 13, x. 12, for {uperetein} of the horse.

VII

The master, let us suppose, has received his horse and is ready to

mount. (1) We will now prescribe certain rules to be observed in the

interests not only of the horseman but of the animal which he bestrides.

First, then, he should take the leading rein, which hangs from the

chin-strap or nose-band, (2) conveniently in his left hand, held slack

so as not to jerk the horse's mouth, whether he means to mount by

hoisting himself up, catching hold of the mane behind the ears, or

to vault on to horseback by help of his spear. With the right hand

he should grip the reins along with a tuft of hair beside the

shoulder-joint, (3) so that he may not in any way wrench the horse's

mouth with the bit while mounting. In the act of taking the spring off

the ground for mounting, (4) he should hoist his body by help of the

left hand, and with the right at full stretch assist the upward movement

(5) (a position in mounting which will present a graceful spectacle also

from behind); (6) at the same time with the leg well bent, and taking

care not to place his knee on the horse's back, he must pass his leg

clean over to the off side; and so having brought his foot well round,

plant himself firmly on his seat. (7)

(1) Reading {otan... paradexetai... os anabesomenos}. Or,

reading {otan paradexetai ton ippea (sc. o. ippos) ws

anabesomenon}, transl. "the horse has been brought round ready for

mounting."

(2) So Courier, "la muserolle." It might be merely a stitched leather

strap or made of a chain in part, which rattled; as

{khrusokhalinon patagon psalion} (Aristoph. "Peace," 155) implies.

"Curb" would be misleading.

(3) "Near the withers."

(4) Or, "as soon as he has got the springing poise preliminary to

mounting."

(5) "Give himself simultaneously a lift." Reading {ekteinon}, or if

{enteinon}, "keeping his right arm stiff."

(6) Or, "a style of mounting which will obviate an ungainly attitude

behind."

(7) Lit. "lower his buttocks on to the horse's back."

To meet the case in which the horseman may chance to be leading his

horse with the left hand and carrying his spear in the right, it would

be good, we think, for every one to practise vaulting on to his seat

from the right side also. In fact, he has nothing else to learn except

to do with his right limbs what he has previously done with the left,

and vice versa. And the reason we approve of this method of mounting

is (8) that it enables the soldier at one and the same instant to

get astride of his horse and to find himself prepared at all points,

supposing he should have to enter the lists of battle on a sudden.

(8) Lit. "One reason for the praise which we bestow on this method of

mounting is that at the very instant of gaining his seat the

soldier finds himself fully prepared to engage the enemy on a

sudden, if occasion need."

But now, supposing the rider fairly seated, whether bareback or on a

saddle-cloth, a good seat is not that of a man seated on a chair, but

rather the pose of a man standing upright with his legs apart. In this

way he will be able to hold on to the horse more firmly by his thighs;

and this erect attitude will enable him to hurl a javelin or to strike

a blow from horseback, if occasion calls, with more vigorous effect.

The leg and foot should hang loosely from the knee; by keeping the

leg stiff, the rider is apt to have it broken in collision with some

obstacle; whereas a flexible leg (9) will yield to the impact, and at

the same time not shift the thigh from its position. The rider should

also accustom the whole of his body above the hips to be as supple as

possible; for thus he will enlarge his scope of action, and in case of

a tug or shove be less liable to be unseated. Next, when the rider is

seated, he must, in the first place, teach his horse to stand quiet,

until he has drawn his skirts from under him, if need be, (10) and got

the reins an equal length and grasped his spear in the handiest fashion;

and, in the next place, he should keep his left arm close to his side.

This position will give the rider absolute ease and freedom, (11) and

his hand the firmest hold.

(9) i.e. "below the knee"; "shin and calf."

(10) Lit. "pulled up" (and arranged the folds of his mantle).

(11) {eustalestatos}, "the most business-like deportment."

As to reins, we recommend those which are well balanced, without being

weak or slippery or thick, so that when necessary, the hand which holds

them can also grasp a spear.

As soon as the rider gives the signal to the horse to start, (12) he

should begin at a walking pace, which will tend to allay his excitement.

If the horse is inclined to droop his head, the reins should be held

pretty high; or somewhat low, if he is disposed to carry his head high.

This will set off the horse's bearing to the best advantage. Presently,

as he falls into a natural trot, (13) he will gradually relax his limbs

without the slightest suffering, and so come more agreeably to the

gallop. (14) Since, too, the preference is given to starting on the left

foot, it will best conduce to that lead if, while the horse is still

trotting, the signal to gallop should be given at the instant of making

a step with his right foot. (15) As he is on the point of lifting

his left foot he will start upon it, and while turning left will

simultaneously make the first bound of the gallop; (16) since, as a

matter of instinct, a horse, on being turned to the right, leads off

with his right limbs, and to the left with his left.

(12) "Forwards!"

(13) Or, "the true trot."

(14) {epirrabdophorein}, "a fast pace in response to a wave of the

whip."

(15) See Berenger, i. p. 249; also the "Cavalry Drill Book," Part I.

Equitation, S. 22, "The Canter."

(16) {tes episkeliseos}, "he will make the forward stride of the

gallop in the act of turning to the left." See Morgan ad loc.

As an exercise, we recommend what is called the volte, (17) since it

habituates the animal to turn to either hand; while a variation in the

order of the turn is good as involving an equalisation of both sides of

the mouth, in first one, and then the other half of the exercise. (18)

But of the two we commend the oval form of the volte rather than the

circular; for the horse, being already sated with the straight course,

will be all the more ready to turn, and will be practised at once in

the straight course and in wheeling. At the curve, he should be held

up, (19) because it is neither easy nor indeed safe when the horse is

at full speed to turn sharp, especially if the ground is broken (20) or

slippery.

(17) {pede}, figure of eight.

(18) Or, "on first one and then the other half of the manege."

(19) {upolambanein}. See "Hipparch," iii. 14; "Hunting," iii. 10; vi.

22, of a dog.

(20) {apokroton}, al. {epikroton}, "beaten, hard-trodden ground."

But in collecting him, the rider should as little as possible sway the

horse obliquely with the bit, and as little as possible incline his own

body; or, he may rest assured, a trifle will suffice to stretch him and

his horse full length upon the ground. The moment the horse has his eyes

fixed on the straight course after making a turn, is the time to urge

him to full speed. In battle, obviously, these turns and wheelings

are with a view to charging or retiring; consequently, to practise

quickening the pace after wheeling is desirable. When the horse seems

to have had enough of the manege, it would be good to give him a slight

pause, and then suddenly to put him to his quickest, away from his

fellows first, (21) and now towards them; and then again to quiet him

down in mid-career as short as possible; (22) and from halt once more

to turn him right-about and off again full charge. It is easy to

predict that the day will come when there will be need of each of these

manoeuvres.

(21) {mentoi}, "of course."

(22) Or, "within the narrowest compass"; "as finely as possible."

When the moment to dismount has come, you should never do so among

other horses, nor near a group of people, (23) nor outside the

exercising-ground; but on the precise spot which is the scene of his

compulsory exertion there let the horse find also relaxation. (24)

(23) Or, "a knot of bystanders"; cf. Thuc. ii. 21.

(24) Or, as we say, "be caressed, and dismissed."

VIII

As there will, doubtless, be times when the horse will need to race

downhill and uphill and on sloping ground; times, also, when he will

need to leap across an obstacle; or, take a flying leap from off a bank;

(1) or, jump down from a height, the rider must teach and train himself

and his horse to meet all emergencies. In this way the two will have a

chance of saving each the other, and may be expected to increase their

usefulness.

(1) {ekpedan} = exsilire in altum (Sturz, and so Berenger); "to leap

over ditches, and upon high places and down from them."

And here, if any reader should accuse us of repeating ourselves, on

the ground that we are only stating now what we said before on the same

topics, (2) we say that this is not mere repetition. In the former case,

we confined ourselves to advising the purchaser before he concluded his

bargain to test whether the horse could do those particular things; (3)

what we are now maintaining is that the owner ought to teach his own

horse, and we will explain how this teaching is to be done.

(2) Or, "treating of a topic already handled."

(3) i.e. possessed a certain ability at the date of purchase.

With a horse entirely ignorant of leaping, the best way is to take him

by the leading rein, which hangs loose, and to get across the trench

yourself first, and then to pull tight on the leading-rein, to induce

him to leap across. If he refuses, some one with a whip or switch should

apply it smartly. The result will be that the horse will clear at a

bound, not the distance merely, but a far larger space than requisite;

and for the future there will be no need for an actual blow, the mere

sight of some one coming up behind will suffice to make him leap. As

soon as he is accustomed to leap in this way you may mount him and put

him first at smaller and then at larger trenches. At the moment of the

spring be ready to apply the spur; and so too, when training him to leap

up and leap down, you should touch him with the spur at the critical

instant. In the effort to perform any of these actions with the whole

body, the horse will certainly perform them with more safety to himself

and to his rider than he will, if his hind-quarters lag, in taking a

ditch or fence, or in making an upward spring or downward jump. (4)

(4) Lit. "in making these jumps, springs, and leaps across or up or

down."

To face a steep incline, you must first teach him on soft ground, and

finally, when he is accustomed to that, he will much prefer the downward

to the upward slope for a fast pace. And as to the apprehension, which

some people entertain, that a horse may dislocate the shoulder in

galloping down an incline, it should encourage them to learn that the

Persians and Odrysians all run races down precipitous slopes; (5) and

their horses are every bit as sound as our own. (6)

(5) Cf. "Anab." IV. viii. 28; and so the Georgians to this day

(Chardin ap. Courier, op. cit. p. 70, n. 1).

(6) Lit. "as are those of the Hellenes."

Nor must we omit another topic: how the rider is to accommodate himself

to these several movements. (7) Thus, when the horse breaks off into a

gallop, the rider ought to bend forward, since the horse will be less

likely to slip from under; and so to pitch his rider off. So again in

pulling him up short (8) the rider should lean back; and thus escape a

shock. In leaping a ditch or tearing up a steep incline, it is no bad

plan to let go the reins and take hold of the mane, so that the animal

may not feel the burthen of the bit in addition to that of the ground.

In going down a steep incline the rider must throw himself right back

and hold in the horse with the bit, to prevent himself being hurled

headforemost down the slope himself if not his horse.

(7) Or, "to each set of occurrences."

(8) Al. "when the horse is being brought to a poise" (Morgan); and see

Hermann ap. Schneid., {analambanein} = retinere equum, anhalten,

pariren. i.e. "rein in" of the "Parade."

It is a correct principle to vary these exercises, which should be gone

through sometimes in one place and sometimes in another, and should

sometimes be shorter and sometimes longer in duration. The horse will

take much more kindly to them if you do not confine him to one place and

one routine.

Since it is a matter of prime necessity that the rider should keep his

seat, while galloping full speed on every sort of ground, and at the

same time be able to use his weapons with effect on horseback, nothing

could be better, where the country suits and there are wild animals,

than to practise horsemanship in combination with the chase. But when

these resources fail, a good exercise may be supplied in the combined

efforts of two horsemen. (9) One of them will play the part of fugitive,

retreating helter-skelter over every sort of ground, with lance reversed

and plying the butt end. The other pursues, with buttons on his javelins

and his lance similarly handled. (10) Whenever he comes within javelin

range he lets fly at the retreating foeman with his blunted missiles; or

whenever within spear thrust he deals the overtaken combatant a blow.

In coming to close quarters, it is a good plan first to drag the foeman

towards oneself, and then on a sudden to thrust him off; that is a

device to bring him to the ground. (11) The correct plan for the man so

dragged is to press his horse forward: by which action the man who is

being dragged is more likely to unhorse his assailant than to be brought

to the ground himself.

(9) {ippota}. A poetic word; "cavaliers."

(10) Or, "manipulated."

(11) Or, "that may be spoken off as the 'purl trick'"; "it will

unhorse him if anything."

If it ever happens that you have an enemy's camp in front, and cavalry

skirmishing is the order of the day (at one time charging the enemy

right up to the hostile battle-line, and again beating a retreat),

under these circumstances it is well to bear in mind that so long as the

skirmisher is close to his own party, (12) valour and discretion alike

dictate to wheel and charge in the vanguard might and main; but when he

finds himself in close proximity to the foe, he must keep his horse well

in hand. This, in all probability, will enable him to do the greatest

mischief to the enemy, and to receive least damage at his hands.

(12) See "Hipparch," viii. 23.

The gods have bestowed on man, indeed, the gift of teaching man his duty

by means of speech and reasoning, but the horse, it is obvious, is not

open to instruction by speech and reasoning. If you would have a horse

learn to perform his duty, your best plan will be, whenever he does

as you wish, to show him some kindness in return, and when he is

disobedient to chastise him. This principle, though capable of being

stated in a few words, is one which holds good throughout the whole of

horsemanship. As, for instance, a horse will more readily take the bit,

if each time he accepts it some good befalls him; or, again, he will

leap ditches and spring up embankments and perform all the other feats

incumbent on him, if he be led to associate obedience to the word of

command with relaxation. (13)

(13) Lit. "if every time he performs the word of command he is led to

expect some relaxation."

IX

The topics hitherto considered have been: firstly, how to reduce the

chance of being cheated in the purchase of a colt or full-grown horse;

secondly, how to escape as much as possible the risk of injuring your

purchase by mishandling; and lastly, how to succeed in turning out a

horse possessed of all the qualities demanded by the cavalry soldier for

the purposes of war.

The time has come perhaps to add a few suggestions, in case the rider

should be called upon to deal with an animal either unduly spirited or

again unduly sluggish in disposition. The first point to recognise is,

that temper of spirit in a horse takes the place of passion or anger in

a man; and just as you may best escape exciting a man's ill-temper by

avoiding harshness of speech and act, so you will best avoid enraging a

spirited horse by not annoying him. Thus, from the first instant, in the

act of mounting him, you should take pains to minimise the annoyance;

and once on his back you should sit quiet for longer than the ordinary

time, and so urge him forward by the gentlest signs possible; next,

beginning at the slowest pace, gradually work him into a quicker

step, but so gradually that he will find himself at full speed without

noticing it. (1) Any sudden signal will bewilder a spirited horse, just

as a man is bewildered by any sudden sight or sound or other experience.

(I say one should be aware that any unexpected shock will produce

disturbance in a horse.) (2)

(1) Or, "so that the horse may insensibly fall into a gallop."

(2) L. Dindorf and others bracket, as spurious.

So if you wish to pull up a spirited horse when breaking off into a

quicker pace than requisite, you must not suddenly wrench him, but

quietly and gently bring the bit to bear upon him, coaxing him rather

than compelling him to calm down. It is the long steady course rather

than the frequent turn which tends to calm a horse. (3) A quiet pace

sustained for a long time has a caressing, (4) soothing effect, the

reverse of exciting. If any one proposes by a series of fast and

oft-repeated gallops to produce a sense of weariness in the horse, and

so to tame him, his expectation will not be justified by the result; for

under such circumstances a spirited horse will do his best to carry the

day by main force, (5) and with a show of temper, like a passionate man,

may contrive to bring on himself and his rider irreparable mischief.

(3) Or, "long stretches rather than a succession of turns and counter

turns," {apostrophai}.

(4) Reading {katapsosi} with L. Dind.

(5) {agein bia}, vi agere, vi uti, Sturz; al. "go his own gait by

sheer force."

A spirited horse should be kept in check, so that he does not dash off

at full speed; and on the same principle, you should absolutely abstain

from setting him to race against another; as a general rule, your

fiery-spirited horse is only too fond of contention. (6)

(6) Reading {skhedon gar kai phil oi thum}, or if {... oi thil kai

th.} transl. "the more eager and ambitious a horse is, the more

mettlesome he will tend to become."

Smooth bits are better and more serviceable than rough; if a rough bit

be inserted at all, it must be made to resemble a smooth one as much as

possible by lightness of hand.

It is a good thing also for the rider to accustom himself to keep a

quiet seat, especially when mounted on a spirited horse; and also to

touch him as little as possible with anything except that part of the

body necessary to secure a firm seat.

Again, it should be known that the conventional "chirrup" (7) to quiet

and "cluck" to rouse a horse are a sort of precept of the training

school; and supposing any one from the beginning chose to associate soft

soothing actions with the "cluck" sound, and harsh rousing actions

with the "chirrup," the horse could be taught to rouse himself at the

"chirrup" and to calm himself at the "cluck" sound. On this principle,

at the sound of the trumpet or the shout of battle the rider should

avoid coming up to his charger in a state of excitement, or, indeed,

bringing any disturbing influence to bear on the animal. As far

as possible, at such a crisis he should halt and rest him; and, if

circumstances permit, give him his morning or his evening meal. But the

best advice of all is not to get an over-spirited horse for the purposes

of war.

(7) Al. "whistling," and see Berenger, ii. 68. {poppusmos}, a sound

from the lips; {klogmos}, from the cheek.

As to the sluggish type of animal, I need only suggest to do everything

the opposite to what we advise as appropriate in dealing with an animal

of high spirit.

X

But possibly you are not content with a horse serviceable for war. You

want to find in him a showy, attractive animal, with a certain grandeur

of bearing. If so, you must abstain from pulling at his mouth with the

bit, or applying the spur and whip--methods commonly adopted by people

with a view to a fine effect, though, as a matter of fact, they thereby

achieve the very opposite of what they are aiming at. That is to say,

by dragging the mouth up they render the horse blind instead of alive

to what is in front of him; and what with spurring and whipping they

distract the creature to the point of absolute bewilderment and danger.

(1) Feats indeed!--the feats of horses with a strong dislike to being

ridden--up to all sorts of ugly and ungainly tricks. On the contrary,

let the horse be taught to be ridden on a loose bridle, and to hold

his head high and arch his neck, and you will practically be making him

perform the very acts which he himself delights or rather exults in; and

the best proof of the pleasure which he takes is, that when he is let

loose with other horses, and more particularly with mares, you will

see him rear his head aloft to the full height, and arch his neck with

nervous vigour, (2) pawing the air with pliant legs (3) and waving his

tail on high. By training him to adopt the very airs and graces which he

naturally assumes when showing off to best advantage, you have got what

you are aiming at--a horse that delights in being ridden, a splendid and

showy animal, the joy of all beholders.

(1) Al. "the animals are so scared that, the chances are, they are

thrown into disorder."

(2) {gorgoumenos}, with pride and spirit, but with a suggestion of

"fierceness and rage," as of Job's war-horse.

(3) "Mollia crura reponit," Virg. "Georg." iii. 76; Hom. "Hymn. ad

Merc."

How these desirable results are, in our opinion, to be produced, we will

now endeavour to explain. In the first place, then, you ought to have

at least two bits. One of these should be smooth, with discs of a good

size; the other should have heavy and flat discs (4) studded with sharp

spikes, so that when the horse seizes it and dislikes the roughness he

will drop it; then when the smooth is given him instead, he is delighted

with its smoothness, and whatever he has learnt before upon the rough,

he will perform with greater relish on the smooth. He may certainly, out

of contempt for its very smoothness, perpetually try to get a purchase

on it, and that is why we attach large discs to the smooth bit, the

effect of which is to make him open his mouth, and drop the mouthpiece.

It is possible to make the rough bit of every degree of roughness by

keeping it slack or taut.

(4) See Morgan, op. cit. p. 144 foll.

But, whatever the type of bit may be, let it in any case be flexible.

If it be stiff, at whatever point the horse seizes it he must take it up

bodily against his jaws; just as it does not matter at what point a

man takes hold of a bar of iron, (5) he lifts it as a whole. The other

flexibly constructed type acts like a chain (only the single point

at which you hold it remains stiff, the rest hangs loose); and while

perpetually hunting for the portion which escapes him, he lets the

mouthpiece go from his bars. (6) For this reason the rings are hung in

the middle from the two axles, (7) so that while feeling for them with

his tongue and teeth he may neglect to take the bit up against his jaws.

(5) Or, "poker," as we might say; lit. "spit."

(6) Schneid. cf. Eur. "Hippol." 1223.

(7) See Morgan, note ad loc. Berenger (i. 261) notes: "We have a small

chain in the upset or hollow part of our bits, called a 'Player,'

with which the horse playing with his tongue, and rolling it

about, keeps his mouth moist and fresh; and, as Xenophon hints, it

may serve likewise to fix his attention and prevent him from

writhing his mouth about, or as the French call it, 'faire ses

forces.'"

To explain what is meant by flexible and stiff as applied to a bit, we

will describe the matter. A flexible bit is one in which the axles have

their points of junction broad and smooth, (8) so as to bend easily; and

where the several parts fitting round the axles, being large of aperture

and not too closely packed, have greater flexibility; whereas, if the

several parts do not slide to and fro with ease, and play into each

other, that is what we call a stiff bit. Whatever the kind of bit may

be, the rider must carry out precisely the same rules in using it, as

follows, if he wishes to turn out a horse with the qualities described.

The horse's mouth is not to be pulled back too harshly so as to make

him toss his head aside, nor yet so gently that he will not feel the

pressure. But the instant he raises his neck in answer to the pull, give

him the bit at once; and so throughout, as we never cease repeating, at

every response to your wishes, whenever and wherever the animal performs

his service well, (9) reward and humour him. Thus, when the rider

perceives that the horse takes a pleasure in the high arching and

supple play of his neck, let him seize the instant not to impose severe

exertion on him, like a taskmaster, but rather to caress and coax

him, as if anxious to give him a rest. In this way the horse will be

encouraged and fall into a rapid pace.

(8) i.e. "the ends of the axles (at the point of junction) which work

into each other are broad and smooth, so as to play freely at the

join."

(9) "Behaves compliantly."

That a horse takes pleasure in swift movement, may be shown

conclusively. As soon as he has got his liberty, he sets off at a

trot or gallop, never at a walking pace; so natural and instinctive a

pleasure does this action afford him, if he is not forced to perform

it to excess; since it is true of horse and man alike that nothing is

pleasant if carried to excess. (10)

(10) L. Dind. cf. Eur. "Med." 128, {ta de' uperballont oudena kairon}.

But now suppose he has attained to the grand style when ridden--we have

accustomed him of course in his first exercise to wheel and fall into

a canter simultaneously; assuming then, he has got that lesson well

by heart, if the rider pulls him up with the bit while simultaneously

giving him one of the signals to be off, the horse, galled on the one

hand by the bit, and on the other collecting himself in obedience to the

signal "off," will throw forward his chest and raise his legs aloft with

fiery spirit; though not indeed with suppleness, for the supple play

of the limbs ceases as soon as the horse feels annoyance. But now,

supposing when his fire is thus enkindled (11) you give him the rein,

the effect is instantaneous. Under the pleasurable sense of freedom,

thanks to the relaxation of the bit, with stately bearing and legs

pliantly moving he dashes forward in his pride, in every respect

imitating the airs and graces of a horse approaching other horses.

Listen to the epithets with which spectators will describe the type of

horse: the noble animal! and what willingness to work, what paces, (12)

what a spirit and what mettle; how proudly he bears himself (13)--a joy

at once, and yet a terror to behold.

(11) Cf. "Hell." V. iv. 46, "kindled into new life."

(12) {ipposten}, "a true soldier's horse."

(13) {sobaron}, "what a push and swagger"; {kai ama edun te kai gorgon

idein}, "a la fois doux et terrible a voir," see Victor

Cherbuliez, "Un Cheval de Phidias," p. 148.

Thus far on this topic; these notes may serve perhaps to meet a special

need.

XI

If, however, the wish is to secure a horse adapted to parade and state

processions, a high stepper and a showy (1) animal, these are qualities

not to be found combined in every horse, but to begin with, the animal

must have high spirit and a stalwart body. Not that, as some think, a

horse with flexible legs will necessarily be able to rear his body. What

we want is a horse with supple loins, and not supple only but short and

strong (I do not mean the loins towards the tail, but by the belly the

region between the ribs and thighs). That is the horse who will be

able to plant his hind-legs well under the forearm. If while he is so

planting his hind-quarters, he is pulled up with the bit, he lowers his

hind-legs on his hocks (2) and raises the forepart of his body, so that

any one in front of him will see the whole length of his belly to the

sheath. (3) At the moment the horse does this, the rider should give

him the rein, so that he may display the noblest feats which a horse can

perform of his own free will, to the satisfaction of the spectators.

(1) {lampros}. Cf. Isae. xi. 41 ("On the estate of Hagnias"), Lys.

xix. 63 ("de Bon. Arist.").

(2) See Berenger, ii. 68.

(3) Lit. "testicles."

There are, indeed, other methods of teaching these arts. (4) Some do so

by touching the horse with a switch under the hocks, others employ an

attendant to run alongside and strike the horse with a stick under the

gaskins. For ourselves, however, far the best method of instruction, (5)

as we keep repeating, is to let the horse feel that whatever he does

in obedience to the rider's wishes will be followed by some rest and

relaxation.

(4) Lit. "People, it must be admitted, claim to teach these arts in

various ways--some by... others by bidding..."

(5) Reading {didaskalion}, al. {didaskalion}, "systems." Schneid. cf.

Herod. v. 58.

To quote a dictum of Simon, what a horse does under compulsion he does

blindly, and his performance is no more beautiful than would be that of

a ballet-dancer taught by whip and goad. The performances of horse or

man so treated would seem to be displays of clumsy gestures rather than

of grace and beauty. What we need is that the horse should of his own

accord exhibit his finest airs and paces at set signals. (6) Supposing,

when he is in the riding-field, (7) you push him to a gallop until he is

bathed in sweat, and when he begins to prance and show his airs to fine

effect, you promptly dismount and take off the bit, you may rely upon

it he will of his own accord another time break into the same

prancing action. Such are the horses on which gods and heroes ride,

as represented by the artist. The majesty of men themselves is best

discovered in the graceful handling of such animals. (8) A horse so

prancing is indeed a thing of beauty, a wonder and a marvel; riveting

the gaze of all who see him, young alike and graybeards. They will never

turn their backs, I venture to predict, or weary of their gazing so long

as he continues to display his splendid action.

(6) Or, "by aids and signs," as we say.

(7) Or, "exercising-ground."

(8) Or, "and the man who knows how to manage such a creature

gracefully himself at once appears magnificent."

If the possessor of so rare a creature should find himself by chance in

the position of a squadron leader or a general of cavalry, he must

not confine his zeal to the development of his personal splendour,

but should study all the more to make the troop or regiment a splendid

spectacle. Supposing (in accordance with the high praise bestowed upon

the type of animal) (9) the leader is mounted on a horse which with

his high airs and frequent prancing makes but the slightest movement

forward--obviously the rest of the troop must follow at a walking

pace, and one may fairly ask where is the element of splendour in the

spectacle? But now suppose that you, sir, being at the head of the

procession, rouse your horse and take the lead at a pace neither too

fast nor yet too slow, but in a way to bring out the best qualities in

all the animals, their spirit, fire, grace of mien and bearing ripe

for action--I say, if you take the lead of them in this style, the

collective thud, the general neighing and the snorting of the horses

will combine to render not only you at the head, but your whole company

(10) down to the last man a thrilling spectacle.

(9) Reading as vulg. {os malista epainousi tous toioutous ippous, os}.

L. Dind. omits the words as a gloss.

(10) Reading {oi} (for {osoi}) {sumparepomenoi}. See Hartmann, "An.

Xen. Nov." xiv. p. 343.

One word more. Supposing a man has shown some skill in purchasing his

horses, and can rear them into strong and serviceable animals, supposing

further he can handle them in the right way, not only in the training

for war, but in exercises with a view to display, or lastly, in the

stress of actual battle, what is there to prevent such a man from making

every horse he owns of far more value in the end than when he bought

it, with the further outlook that, unless some power higher than human

interpose, (11) he will become the owner of a celebrated stable, and

himself as celebrated for his skill in horsemanship.

(11) Or, "there is nothing, humanly speaking, to prevent such a man."

For the phrase see "Mem." I. iii. 5; cf. "Cyrop." I. vi. 18; and

for the advice, "Econ." iii. 9, 10.

XII

We will now describe the manner in which a trooper destined to run the

risks of battle upon horseback should be armed. In the first place,

then, we would insist, the corselet must be made to fit the person;

since, if it fits well, its weight will be distributed over the whole

body; whereas, if too loose, the shoulders will have all the weight to

bear, while, if too tight, the corselet is no longer a defensive arm,

but a "strait jacket." (1) Again, the neck, as being a vital part, (2)

ought to have, as we maintain, a covering, appended to the corselet and

close-fitting. This will serve as an ornament, and if made as it ought

to be, will conceal the rider's face--if so he chooses--up to the nose.

(1) Cf. "Mem." III. x.

(2) L. Dind. cf. Hom. "Il." viii. 326:

{... othi kleis apoergei aukhena te stethos te, malista de kairion

estin.}

"Where the collar-bone fenceth off neck and breast, and where is the

most deadly spot" (W. Leaf).

As to the helmet, the best kind, in our opinion, is one of the Boeotian

pattern, (3) on the principle again, that it covers all the parts

exposed above the breastplate without hindering vision. Another point:

the corselet should be so constructed that it does not prevent its

wearer sitting down or stooping. About the abdomen and the genitals

and parts surrounding (4) flaps should be attached in texture and in

thickness sufficient to protect (5) that region.

(3) Schneider cf. Aelian, "V. H." iii. 24; Pollux, i. 149.

(4) Schneider cf. "Anab." IV. vii. 15, and for {kai ta kuklo}, conj.

{kuklo}, "the abdomen and middle should be encircled by a skirt."

(5) Lit. "let there be wings of such sort, size, and number as to

protect the limbs."

Again, as an injury to the left hand may disable the horseman, we would

recommend the newly-invented piece of armour called the gauntlet, which

protects the shoulder, arm, and elbow, with the hand engaged in holding

the reins, being so constructed as to extend and contract; in addition

to which it covers the gap left by the corselet under the armpit. The

case is different with the right hand, which the horseman must needs

raise to discharge a javelin or strike a blow. Here, accordingly, any

part of the corselet which would hinder action out to be removed; in

place of which the corselet ought to have some extra flaps (6) at the

joints, which as the outstretched arm is raised unfold, and as the arm

descends close tight again. The arm itself, (7) it seems to us, will

better be protected by a piece like a greave stretched over it than

bound up with the corselet. Again, the part exposed when the right hand

is raised should be covered close to the corselet either with calfskin

or with metal; or else there will be a want of protection just at the

most vital point.

(6) {prosthetai}, "moveable," "false." For {gigglumois} L. & S. cf.

Hipp. 411. 12; Aristot. "de An." iii. 10. 9 = "ball-and-socket

joints."

(7) i.e. "forearm."

Moreover, as any damage done to the horse will involve his rider in

extreme peril, the horse also should be clad in armour--frontlet,

breastplate, and thigh-pieces; (8) which latter may at the same time

serve as cuisses for the mounted man. Beyond all else, the horse's

belly, being the most vital and defenceless part, should be protected.

It is possible to protect it with the saddle-cloth. The saddle itself

should be of such sort and so stitched as to give the rider a firm seat,

and yet not gall the horse's back.

(8) Cf. "Cyrop." VI. iv. 1; VII. i. 2.

As regards the limbs in general, both horse and rider may be looked upon

as fully armed. The only parts remaining are the shins and feet, which

of course protrude beyond the cuisses, but these also may be armed

by the addition of gaiters made of leather like that used for making

sandals. And thus you will have at once defensive armour for the shins

and stockings for the feet.

The above, with the blessing of heaven, will serve for armour of

defence. To come to weapons of offence, we recommend the sabre rather

than the straight sword, (9) since from the vantage-ground of the

horse's position the curved blade will descend with greater force than

the ordinary weapon.

(9) The {makhaira} (or {kopis}), Persian fashion, rather than the

{xephos}. "Cyrop." I. ii. 13.

Again, in place of the long reed spear, which is apt to be weak and

awkward to carry, we would substitute two darts of cornel-wood; (10)

the one of which the skilful horseman can let fly, and still ply the one

reserved in all directions, forwards, backwards, (11) and obliquely; add

to that, these smaller weapons are not only stronger than the spear but

far more manageable.

(10) For these reforms, the result of the author's Asiatic experiences

perhaps, cf. "Hell." III. iv. 14; "Anab." I. viii. 3; "Cyrop." I.

ii. 9.

(11) Reading {eis toupisthen} after Leoncl.

As regards range of discharge in shooting we are in favour of the

longest possible, as giving more time to rally (12) and transfer the

second javelin to the right hand. And here we will state shortly the

most effective method of hurling the javelin. The horseman should throw

forward his left side, while drawing back his right; then rising bodily

from the thighs, he should let fly the missile with the point slightly

upwards. The dart so discharged will carry with the greatest force and

to the farthest distance; we may add, too, with the truest aim, if at

the moment of discharge the lance be directed steadily on the object

aimed at. (13)

(12) Al. "to turn right-about."

(13) "If the lance is steadily eyeing the mark at the instant of

discharge."

This treatise, consisting of notes and suggestions, lessons and

exercises suited to a private individual, must come to a conclusion; the

theory and practice of the matter suited to a cavalry commander will be

found developed in the companion treatise. (14)

(14) In reference to "The Cavalry General", or "Hipparch."